Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Exam 2
Modules 23-40
187
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/17/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Association
Definition
Aristotle, Locke, and Hume theorized that we learn by
Term
Learning
Definition
Changes in behavior and/or thought in response to experience
Term
Learning occurs because
Definition
animals and humans need to adapt to their environments
Term
Conditioning
Definition
the process of learning associations
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
associating a response (a behavior we perform) with its consequences (rewards or punishment for that behavior)
Term
observational learning
Definition
learning a behavior just by watching it performed
Term
language
Definition
type of learning that separates humans from animals
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Definition
the stimulus that triggers the UR (e.g.the food)
Term
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Definition
unlearned response to a stimulus (e.g.salivating)
Term
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition
the stimulus that triggers the response after learning (e.g.bell)
Term
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition
learned response to a stimulus that otherwise would not cause the behavior (e.g. salivating upon hearing the bell)
Term
Acquisition
Definition

initial learning of the association

ex) timing- the US and CS need to be presented closely together in time

Order- the CS must come before the US

Term
Conditioning is adaptive for
Definition
Survival and Behavior
Term
Higher-order conditioning
Definition

a new neutral stimulus becomes a new CS

ex) when a new neatrual stimulus becomes associated with the previous CS it can be weaker that the first-order conditioning

Term
EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Definition

US-hot water

UR- flinch/jump back

CS- the sound of a toilet flusing

CR- flinch/jump back in response to the sound of the toilet

Term
EXAMPLES OF HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING
Definition

US (a specific dog bites you) - UR (fear)

CS, hearing a dog bark--CS, seeing a dog--US, the dog bite--CR, fear

Term
Generalization
Definition

responding to stimuli that are similar to the CS

 

ex) a dog salivating when it hears bells that sound like the bell it had been conditioned with

Term
Discrimination
Definition

Responding only to the specific stimulus used for conditioning

 

teaching the dog to salivate to a specific bell-

fear response when seeing the type of dog that bit you but not fearing other types

Term
Extinction
Definition

when the CR lessens or goes away

If you repeatedly present the CS without the US, eventually the CR will go away

 

Ex) ring a bell (CS) many times w/o food (US) the dog stops salivating to bell (CR)

Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition

when the CR spontaneously reappears

if you extinguish a behavior, then wait a few hours:

ring the bell (CS) and the dog will salivate again (CR) the CR may be weaker than before

Term
Cognitive processes say
Definition
Animals can learn the predictability of an event
Term
Ecological Relevance
Definition
we learn associations that are relevant to something that was adaptive in our evolutionary history. Ex) Sex and the color Red
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
involves associating your own behavior with the outcome of the behavior
Term
Key difference in operant and classical conditioning
Definition
classical conditioning the organism has NO CONTROL
in operant conditioning the organism does have CONTROL
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
Thornidke's theory that rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated
Term
Skinner designed
Definition
the "operant chamber" which was used to teach animals new behaviors
ex) taught penguins to walk in figure 8, play ping pong, keep missiles on target by pecking a target on a screen, etc
Term
Shaping Behavior
Definition
reinforcers are used to guide behavior towards a goal behavior
Term
Reinforcers
Definition
any event that increases the frequency of a behavior
-it can be tangible, intangible, or an activity
Term
Reinforcers can
Definition
vary from person to person because what motivates one person may not motivate another
Term
Types of reinforcers
Definition
Positive- provides stimulus in response to a behavior
negative- removing a stimulus in response to a behavior
primary- unlearned stimuli
conditioned- learned through association with primary reinforcers
Term
Two types of reinforcement schedules
Definition
conintuous- everytime you do the behavior, you get the reinforcers
partial(intermittent)-sometimes when you do the behavior you get the reinforcer but not always
Term
Initial learning is
Definition
slower if reinforcement is continuous
Term
Partial Reinforcement can includes
Definition
fixed ratio- reinforcer is given after a set number of behaviors
variable ratio- rienforcer is given after an unknown number of behaviors
fixed interval- first response is reinforced after a set time period
Term
Rewards tell you

punishment tells you
Definition
what TO do

what NOT to do
Term
Effects of Punishment
Definition
Punished behaviors are NOT forgotten
punishment teaches discrimination
...teaches fear
physical punishment can increase aggressiveness
Term
Latent learning
Definition
learning the mazes only becomes apparent when you introduce a reward to demonstrate it
Term
Extrinsic motivation
Definition
desire to perform a behavior for external reward or to avoid punishment
Term
Instrinsic motivation
Definition
desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
Term
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Definition
School
Work
Sports
Home
Term
Classical and Operant conditioning is constrained by
Definition
the organisms biology
Term
Ways of Conditioning Yourself
Definition
1. state a goal
2. monitor how often ou engage in the desired behavior
3. reinforce the desired behavior
4. reduce the rewards gradually
Term
Classical Conditioning is
Definition
learned association between events
US causes the UR without learning
pairing CS with US causes CR
Term
Operant conditioning is
Definition
learned associations between behaviors and outcomes
reinforcers and punishments
Term
Modeling
Definition
the process by which we learn from observation and imitation of others
Term
Mirror Neurons
Definition
neurons in the brain that are activated both when we are doing a task AND when we are only watching another organism do a task
Term
Infants at 8 months
at 12 months
at 14 months
Definition
imitate novel gestures

look where someone else is looking(joint attention)

imitate actions seen on tv
Term
Theory of mind
Definition
the ability to feel empathy for another by inferrring their state of mind
Term
Mirror neurons help us
Definition
initate actions as weel as infer the state of mind of another person (Feel empathy)
Term
two applications of obserational learning
Definition
prosocial effects--if you want your child to read, you read to them

Antisocial effects --abusive or agressive parents often produce abusive/aggressive children
Term
Memory is
Definition
leaning that persists over time
Term
In order to remember we must
Definition
encode

store

retrieve
Term
According to Atkinson ans Shiffrin we have 3 types of memory
Definition
Sensory:
Short-term:
Long-term:
Term
Sensory memory
Definition
unlimited capacity
limited duration
iconic=visual
echoic= auditory
haptic= touch
Term
Short-term memory
Definition
limited capacity
longer duration that sensory
Term
Longterm memory
Definition
unlimited capacity
unlimited duration
Term
Encoding...
Definition
we process some things unconsciously, but most things require attention to be encoded into memory
Term
4 types of automatic processing
Definition
We automaticially process info about...
space-spatical relations amongst objects

time- the sequence of events

how often something happens

well-learned info- read becauase reading is a well-learned skill
Term
Effortful Processing includes
Definition
rehersal- conscious repetition of new info
Ebbinghaus- studied memory for nonsense syllabus
Term
We obtain______ info ______with distributed practice than with mass practie
Definition
More
Overtime
Term
Distributed Practice
Definition
rehearsing the information at several points in time
Term
Mass practice
Definition
rehearsing information once (i.e. cramming before an exam)
Term
Memory is always better if
Definition
encoding is ACTIVE
(i.e. testing yourself rather than just reading information)
Term
Repeated testing overtime
Definition
increases memory for the information
Term
Serial Position Effect
Definition
the tendency to remember things at the beginning and end of lists better than the info in the middle
Primacy Effect-tendency to remember the first item
Recency effect-tendency to remember the last item
Term
Levels of processing
Definition
how deeply you process info affects how well you remember it later
Term
We process information by
Definition
encoding meaning

encoding images

mentally organizing it
Term
Verbal information can be encoded:
Definition
visually
acoustically
semantically
Term
Semantic encoding
Definition
is the deeper form of processing for verbal information
Term
Craik & Tulvings tests of verbal information
Definition
1. Is the work in capitol letters?
(visual)
2. Does the work ryhme with train?
(acoustic)
3. would the word fit in the sentence?
(semantic)
Term
How much we remember depends on:
Definition
how long we take to learn it
how meaningful we make it
Term
self reference effect
Definition
you remember more information if it relates to you than if it relates to someone else
Term
Ways of organizing to encode
Definition
Chunking- making meaninful groups out of individual peices of info
Hierarchies-nested categories
Mnemonics- systems for remembering large amounts on info
Term
Our earliest memories usually
Definition
involve visual memory

because mental pictures are relatively easy to remember
Term
Rosy retrospection
Definition
remembering only the most pleasant aspects of an experience
Term
Mnemonics include using
Definition
Peg-word system--memorizing a jingle
method of Loci--attaching info to locations in a well-known space
Term
Types of memory differ on:
Definition
how long they last(duration)
and How much they can hold up (capacity)
Term
4 branches of working memory
Definition
central executive
visouspatial sketchpad
Phonological Loop
Episodic buffer
Term
working memory processes
Definition
information in the immediate enviornemy

also gets info from your long-term memory to help it do this
Term
Working memory tasks include:
Definition
digit span
letter span
non-word repetition
size judgement
Term
things that hurt memory for lists
Definition
Phonological similarity
word length
articulatory suppression
Term
things that help memory for lists
Definition
Primacy and Recency
Von Restorff-anything that is distinctive from the rest of the list is easier to remember
semantic groupings
Term
Synesthesia
Definition
is a neurologically based condition in which stimulation of one sensroy or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sesory or cognitive pathway
Term
two types of longterm memory
Definition
explicit--conscious recall
implicit--without conscious recall
Term
Explicit memories are
Definition
processed in the hippocampus
Branch to...Facts and Personality
Term
Implicit memroies are
Definition
processed by other brain areas including cerrebelum
Branch to...skills and classical conditioning
Term
We do NOT store memories in specific discreate locations
Definition
Term
short-term memory is maintained with
Definition
neural activity
Term
long term memory causes changes in
Definition
the structures and function of the brain
Term
Synaptic changes lead to
Definition
Longterm potention
repeated stimulation of neaural pathway causes changes to that pathway
Term
LPT can make sending neaurons

LPT can make recieving neurons
Definition
more sensitive--they need less prompting to release neurotransmitter

more sensitive--more receptors to b ind with neurotransmitters
Term
Evidence of LTP
Definition
Drugs that block LTP interfer with learning and preservation erase recent memories
Term
Memory drugs
Definition
boost CREB protein production

boost Glutamate
Term
Flashbulb memories
Definition
clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Term
stress hormones
Definition
make more flucose available to the breain and with more enery, the brain is more active
Amygdala-emotion center of the brain; boosts brain activity and available protien
Term
Explicit or declarative memory is
Definition
things we can talk about and are aware of
Term
implicit or non-declarative memory are
Definition
things we can do but not necessarily explain; we are not aware of having learned them
Term
Amnesia
Definition
impairment of memory

2 types:
retrograde (past events)
anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories)
Term
2 types of retrieval for memories
Definition
recall- you know the information

recognition- the information feels familiar
relearning-faster than the first time you learned it
Term
Hippocampus is
Definition
inportant for EXPLICIT memories
it is involved in converting the short-term memories into long-term ones
Term
Cerebellum
Definition
important for IMPLICIT memories
skills
classcally conditioned
associations
Term
Retrieval Cues
Definition
Priming-activation (often unconscious) of memory addiciations

the more similarity between where you studied and where you retreieve, the better memory will be
Term
Deja Vu
Definition
the feeling that you have had the same experience before
Term
Hiccups in Processing
Definition
involved with deja vu
if one of the things we're processsing in parallel is delayed, it can feel like a repeat
Term
Mood
Definition
can effect memory
Mood-congruency- being in a bad mood makes it earier to remember bad memories
state-dependent memory- we recall things we learn if we are in the same state at encoding and retrieval
Term
Memory is a _______process
Definition
reconstructive
Term
three sins of forgetting
Definition
absent-minded- if your attention is divided, you dont encode info well
transience-unused info decays over time
blocking- inaccessibility of store info
Term
three sins of distortion
Definition
misattribution- confusing source info
suggestibity-lingering effects of misinformation
bias-belief colored recollections
Term
sin of intrusion
Definition
presistence-recalling unwanted memories
Term
interference
Definition
when learning some items interferes with retrieval of other items from memory
proactive-learning X yesterday disrupts learning Y today
Retroactive- Learning Y today disrupts X that was learned yesterday
Term
the longer you are awake after learning new info
Definition
the more likely it is to have interference
Term
Freud's belief of motivated forgetting
Definition
believed that painful memories were often repressed but tht they were waiting in the subconscious
Term
Christiansen and Loftus experience on tramatic memory discovered
Definition
memory for the essence or theme of traumatic even is remembered very well--details are remembered less
Term
type of misattribution
Definition
source amnesia- making youself believe you experienced an event by reading about it, imagining it, etc

one of the most easily forgotten details of memory is the source of the information
Term
misinformation can be lead by
Definition
suggestibility both purposeful or accidental
Term
Infantiile amnesia
Definition
memory for things that happened before age 3 are very unreliable
Term
Intellegence is the ability to
Definition
learn from experiences
solve problems
use knowledge to adapt
Term
Social construct of Intelligence
Definition
we value certain skills as a culture
if someone is good at those skills, we call them intellegent
Term
Factor Analysis


Theory of Intelligence
Definition
you give people a bunch of tests
you run stats to see which tests are related to each other
you interpret what related tests have in common
Term
Spearman proposed the g factor
Definition
idea that there is one general intellegence
Term
Thurstone found 7 clusters of skills
Definition
one was related to success on all others, we call that the g
several distinct skills exist
Term
Kanazawa said

theories of intellegence
Definition
the g is used for solving novel porblems but that everyday problems require a different kind of intellegence

fluid intellegence

crystallized intellegence
Term
Gardner said

theories of intellegence
Definition
we have multiple intellegences

Savant Syndrome- major deficits, but areas of extrordinary function
Term
sternberg proposed 3 intellegences
Definition
analytical
creative
practical
Term
two kinds of thinking
Definition
convergent-intellegence
divergent-creativity
Term
5 components of creativity
Definition
1. Expertise-background knowledge of an area helps you branch out
2. imaginative thinking skills-recognize patters, see things in a new way
3. venturesome personality-seeks new experiences
4. intrinsic motivation-driven by interest not external rewards
5.creative enviroment-sparks, supports,and refines ideas
Term
g (idea that there is one general intelligence) predicts
Definition
performance on a variety of complex tasks, including job performance
Term
Emotional Intelligence
Definition
social intelligence-ability to manage social situations
emotional intelligence-ablility to percieve, understand, manage, and adapt to emotions
Term
Emotionally intellegent people are____ but emotionally intelligence is NOT the same as
Definition
ARE self-aware
NOT self esteem
Term
Intellegence is linked to
Definition
specific activity areas of the frontal lobe and parietal lobes
Term
highly educated people die with more
Definition
synapses
this suggests intellegent people differ in neural plasticity
Term
95% of people fall within 2 SD of the mean
Definition
Term
genius IQ
Average IQ
Below Average
Definition
152 and Over is genuis
84-116 is average
below 52 is mental defiency
Term
3 types of modern tests for intellegence
Definition
Acheivement- assess what you have learned (crystallized)
aptitude- assess capacity to learn (fluid)
WAIS- measure verbal and nonverbal test
Term
scores below 70 indicate intellectual disability
degrees of disability
Definition
mild 50-70
moderate 35-50
severe 20-35
prefourd below 20
Term
how many percent of children are considered gifted?
Definition
3% to 5%
Term
types of test construction
Definition
reliability- consistent results
validty- are you measuring the right thing
Term
with test construction
Definition
a measure can be reliable but NOT valid
a measure can be valid but NOT reliable
Term
does IQ change?
Definition
around 4 years old, IQ tests performance starts to predicts IQ in teen years after age 7 scores stabilize
Term
Cognition is all the mental processes involved in
Definition
learning info
storing info
processing info
Term
learning information involves
Definition
classical and operant comditioning
observational learning
acquiring language
Term
storing information involves
Definition
memoring-encoding, stoage, and retrieval
--including semantic memories
Term
processing information involves
Definition
attention
working memory
problem solving
decision making
language production comprehension
Term
many people argue that only humans have

(cognition)
Definition
self referental episodic memory
metacognition
language
Term
Self referential episodic memory means
Definition
the sense of self in memories. animals lean in associations, but what some think they lack is the ability to place themselves in the memory, learning the material.
Term
Metacognition
Definition
this refers to the ability to think about thinking. in other words, the ability we have to reflect on what we know and how we learned it
Term
human languages are
Definition
Rule-govered: rules of grammar

Generative: infinte number of utterances are possible

Recursive: complex gramatical structure

Symbolic: arituary labels and displacement in time or space
Term
grammar includes
Definition
all the rules regarding how to use a language
Term
rules as a culture for our language
Definition
Descriptive-how people actually speak
prescriptive-how we all agree we're supposed to speak (e.g. double negatives, etc)
Term
structure of language
Definition
Phonology- the rules of the sound system
Semantics- the rules of word meaning
Syntax- the rules of word order
Term
Articulation
Definition
the use of: vocal cords, oral and nasal cavities
tongue
palate
teeth
lips
Term
Phoneme
Definition
the smallest unit of sound
--around 40 in English
Term
Morpheme
Definition
the smallest unit of meaning
100,000 in English
Term
types of sementics and syntax
Definition
Morpheme
Words
Phrase
Sentence
Term
Words are
Definition
meaningful units
around 250,000-750,000 in English
Term
Meaning depends on
Definition
the context of the utterance
knowledge about the status of those involved
inferred intent of the speaker
prosody

as well as grammar nd lexicon
Term
Prosody
Definition
the rhythm, rate, and intonation of language affects the meaning beind it , especiall emtional connotation
(i.e. pitch rate)
Term
Language Acqusition
Definition
when we learn a NATIVE language
--occurs without a lot of effort on our part. if we hear a language, its going to happen
Term
Language Learning
Definition
when we learn a SECOND language
--requires a lot of effort to be proficient
Term
two types of language aquisition
Definition
Phonology
Prosody
Term
Motherese
Definition
the simplified language mothers speak to babies, likely to help babies learn
Term
3 branches of Language Acquisition
Definition
Word Segmentation-
meaning- 50 word explosion happens around 18 months with infants
Grammar- simpler structure are learned earlier
Term
Acuisition stages
Definition
babbling stage- around 4 months
One-word stage- are 12 months; one word the family can interpret
two-word stage- can b before 24 months
longer phrases- 24 months and beyond
Term
3 theories of acquisition
Definition
Operant Learning-cannot explain how language is learned
Universal Grammar
Statiscial Learning and Cricial Periods
Term
why acquisition is diferent from learning
Definition
domain specific theory-language device decays with age
domain-general theory- maybe language learning gets worse because we are getting better at other things such as working memory
Term
inate and input influence on acqusition
Definition
natural bias-prefer periodic sounds
statisical learning-word boundaries, grammar
helpful input- moterese
Term
Brain and Language
Definition
Borca's area-production

Wenicke's area- comprehension
Term
Linquisitc Determinism
aka The Whorffian Hypothesis
Definition
a theory that holds that our language determines the way we think...
this theory says language IS thought
Term
Animals Language includes use of
Definition
prblem solving, learning and abstract operations
however they lack our articulation but they communicate
Term
Emotions are combinations of
Definition
physilogical activation, expressive behavior, and conscious experience
Term
4 theories of emotion
Definition
common sense- conschious awareness->physiological reactions and behaviors
James-Lange theory
Cannon-Bard theory
Two-factory theory
Term
sympatheic branch of nervous system
Definition
fight or flight response (arousing)
Term
Parasympathetic Branch of Nervous system
Definition
return to baseline (calming)
Term
with Optimium Arousal and Performance
Definition
Moderate arousal helps
Excessive arousal hurts
Term
Arousal can be measure by
Definition
Galvanic Skin Response
Respiration
Heart Rate

very similar to emotions
Term
Dopamine rushes both for sexual attraction and fear..this can
Definition
confuse sources of attribution as well as give two different emotions
Term
differences in arousal can be seen in
Definition
fear, anger, and sexual arousal.
differences can be measure by finger tempature, facial expression, and neural activity
Term
Emotion in the brain
Definition
Negative emotions activate the right hemisphere
Positive emotions activate left hemisphere
Term
Types of Lie Detection
Definition
Polygraph-Lie Detector
Control Questions
Critical questions
guilty knowledge test
Term
two ways to spot lies
Definition
EEG- brainwaves associated with scene familiarity
fMRI- special areas active during lying
Term
James-Lange theory
Definition
Arousal->awareness
Term
Cognition can define emotion but doesnt always precede it
Definition
spill over effects

secual arousal and sexual orientation
Term
Schachter-Singer Two Faced Theory
Definition

arousal+label=emotion

 

 

Term

Arousal_____emotion

Cognition_______it

Definition

Fuels

 

Channels

Term
Cannon-Bard Theory
Definition
theory that arousal and emotion happen simutaniously
Term
James-Lange Theory
Definition
Says that arousal happens before emotion
Term
Thorndike's Experiements
Definition
If an action received an award then that action became stamped into the mind
Puzzle Box with cats(expirment)
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
Thorndike believed Behavior changes because of its consequences
Supporting users have an ad free experience!