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| Evaluation of various aspects of the social world. |
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| The process through which people acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other persons |
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| learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation of another stimulus (learning by association) |
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| classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals’ threshold of conscious awareness |
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| Instrumental Conditioning |
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| Learning in which responses (e.g., attitudes) that lead to positive outcomes or which avoid negative outcomes are strengthened |
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| Learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior (e.g., attitudes) as a result of observing others |
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| Effect that occurs when the impact of media exposure on others' attitudes and behavior is overestimated and the impact on the self is under-estimated. |
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| The process through which we compare ourselves to others in order to determine whether our views of social reality are or are not correct. |
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| Attitudes aid in the interpretation of new stimuli and enable rapid responding to attitude-relevant information (in ways that maintain them) |
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| Identity or Self-Expression Function |
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| Attitudes can permit the expression of central values and beliefs and thereby communicate personal identity |
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| Holding particular attitudes can help maintain or enhance feelings of self-worth |
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| Claiming particular attitudes can protect people from unwanted or unflattering views of themselves |
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| Impression Motivation Function |
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| People can use attitudes to lead others to have a positive view of themselves. When motivated to do so, the attitudes people express can shift in order to create the desired impression on others. |
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| when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold, and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than ourselves. |
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| Theory of Reasoned Action |
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Definition
The decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act
That decision is reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior |
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| Theory of Planned Behavior |
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Definition
| In addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior (perceived behavioral control). This theory is an extension of the theory of reasoned action. Behavioral intentions are determined by attitudes toward a behavior, subjective norms, and also perceived behavioral control. |
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| Attitude-to-Behavior Process Model |
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Definition
| Emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individual’s definition of the present situation, which then influences overt behavior. Events automatically trigger attitudes and social norms. |
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| Efforts to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. |
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| Systematic Processing; Central Route (to persuasion) |
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| Involves careful consideration of message content and ideas (argument strength matters) |
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| Heuristic Processing; Peripheral Route (to persuasion) |
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| Involves the use of simple rules or mental shortcuts (argument strength does not matter) |
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Negative reactions to threats to one’s personal freedom
often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce negative attitude change or that opposite to what was intended. |
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| Advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion and increases resistance to the persuasion that follows. |
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| An (unpleasant) internal state which results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior |
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| Spreading of Alternatives |
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Definition
| When making a decision people tend to downplay the item they did not choose and promote the item that they did choose. |
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Definition
| judgments that results from comparisons between individuals who are members of a group. |
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Term
| Personal-social identity continuum |
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Definition
| the two distinct ways that the self can be categorized. At the personal level, the self can be thought of as a unique individual, whereas at the social identity level, the self is thought of as a member of a group. |
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| Judgments that results from comparison between our group and another group. |
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| refers to how the self-concept is organized. |
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| In individualistic cultures, people develop a self-concept as separate from or independent of others. |
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| Interdependent Self-Concept |
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Definition
| In collectivist cultures, people develop a self-concept in terms of one’s connections or relationships with others |
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| Subjective Self-Awareness |
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| First level of self to emerge. It is the recognition that the slef is seperate from others objects in one's physical environment. |
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| Organism’s capacity to be the object of its own attention |
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| Uniquely human capacity to form an abstract representation of the self through language and is connected with knowing that death is inevitable. |
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| Image of how the self might be in the future. |
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| Believing that one can achieve a goal. |
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| Believing that your group can achieve a goal. |
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| Degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self. |
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| People seem to orient themselves toward stimuli that are associated with the self and show preferences for objects owned by and reflective of the self. |
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| Tendency for people to rate themselves as above the average on most positive social attributes. |
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| Festinger (1954, suggested that people compare themselves to others when there is no objective yardstick to evaluate the self against others’ performance. |
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| Downward Social Comparison |
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Definition
| A comparison with someone who does less well than the self. |
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| A comparison with someone who does better than the self. |
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| Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model |
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Definition
| Suggests that to maintain a positive view of the personal self people distance themselves from others who perform better than they do on valued dimensions, but move closer to others who perform worse than they do. |
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Definition
| Suggests that to maintain a positive view of their group identity people will move closer to positive others with whom they share an identity, but distance from (or derogate) those who perform poorly or somehow make social identity negative (black-sheep effect). |
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| When people try to make others like them by conveying that they like them. |
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| Refers to how motivated and able people are to monitor their behavior in response to others’ expectancies. |
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| Attempts to understand the self-examination; turning inward to assess one's motives. |
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| Can occur when people believe that they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their group or that they may, because of their performance, in some way confirm a negative stereotype of their group. |
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| Beliefs about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are believed to share. |
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| The traits possessed by females and males, and that distinguish the two genders from each other. |
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| Hiring based on group membership. |
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| View suggesting that women are superior to men in various ways (e.g., they have better taste) and are necessary for men’s happiness. |
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| Suggests that women are a threat to men’s position (e.g., they are trying to seize power from men which they are perceived as not deserving) |
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| The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as "all-alike" or more similar to each other than members of the in-group. |
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| The tendency to perceive members of our own group as showing much larger differences from one another (as being more heterogeneous) than members of another group. |
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| Members are seen as more similar to each other than out-group members are. Common in minority group members. |
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| Negative attitudes toward members of specific social groups |
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| Realistic Conflict Theory |
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Definition
| (Bobo, 1983) view that prejudice stems from direct competition between various social groups over scarce and valued resources |
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| Can be achieved only by cooperation between groups. |
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| Ultimate Attribution Error |
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Definition
| Tendency to make more favorable and flattering attributions about members of one’s own group than about members of other groups, which is the self-serving attribution bias at the group level. |
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| Concerned with the consequences of perceiving the self as a member of a social group and identifying with it. |
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| Differential (usually negative) behaviors directed toward members of different social groups. |
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| More subtle beliefs than blatant feelings of superiority, which consist primarily of thinking minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve and a denial that discrimination affects their outcomes. |
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| A technique that uses priming to measure implicit racial attitudes. |
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| Prejudice is acquired through direct and vicarious experiences in much the same manner as other attitudes. |
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| View that increased contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them |
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