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| many small cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity above larger cells |
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| heart, kidney, skeletomuscular system, blood |
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| cell activity is organized in space and time so a well-ordered structure develops within an embryo |
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antero-posterior: head to tail
dorso-ventral: back to belly
left-right |
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| cells rearrange to where the germ layers belong |
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| fertilization > cleavage > gastrulation > organogenesis > cell differentiation > growth |
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| turn on most key genes in development by binding to enhancers |
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| complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins that make up chromosomes |
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| place the cell in a dish alone; watch for development |
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| move cell to another area or organism; if it forms its original fate, it is determined |
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| removal of a cell leaves a hole; fates are set early and cannot change ex. C. elegans |
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| is a cell is removed, the organism compensates; cell fates can change if needed (flexibility) |
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| model vertebrate organisms |
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| chick (can make a window in the egg), xenopus (large eggs that can be fertilized in sync in water), mouse (hard to study embryo, but genetics can be studied) |
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| model invertebrate organisms |
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| C. elegans & Drosophila (cheap and easy to grow, genetics can be studied), sea urchins (easy to work with, development can be synced) |
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| signal from one group of cells influences the development of an adjacent group of cells; helps cells figure out where they are |
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| cell signaling molecule diffuses and sends out a signal in a gradient |
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| in situ hybridization, transgenic markers (usually lacZ gene) |
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| methods of tracing proteins |
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| antibody staining, transgenic markers (usually GFP) |
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| DNA probe is used to locate complementary mRNA; can be radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes, or enzyme labels |
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| green fluorescent protein |
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| hooks to protein and follows it through development |
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| benefit of ISH and antibody staining |
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| not all mRNA will be translated |
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| you can track a protein over time and you don't need to kill the embryo to see it |
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| isolates mRNA, tells what genes are transcribed; hybridizes to microarray to see what is expressed |
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| apply mutagen, select for mutant animals with the phenotype of interest, and observe |
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| inactivates gene x, inject dsRNA for gene x, cell machinery destroys cell gene x trancripts |
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| turn on a gene in a new location or at a different level |
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| chemically modified to increase stability within the cell |
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| membranes of egg and sperm fuse and sperm nucleus enters the egg cytoplasm |
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| contents are released on fertilization and help block the entry of more sperm |
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| sperm hits zona pellucida, binds to ZP3 and triggers reaction -> membrane breaks down, allows acrosomal enzymes to release -> enzymes break down the zona pellucida -> sperm can bind to the egg and share nucleus |
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| SED-1 binds to ZP3 in pellucida, mitochondria for energy, flagellum for movement, centriole becomes microtubule organizing center in fertilized cell |
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| egg fertilization and meiosis |
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| 3 polar bodies, 1 egg; eggs of different animals will stop at different meiotic stages until fertilization |
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| has everything needed for the new embryo (except sperm DNA); lots of proteins, organelles, and mRNAs; jelly layer has species-specific sperm attractant; cumulus cells secrete hyaluronic acid, sperm makes hyaluridase; zona pellucida; plasma membrane |
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| only happens with external fertilization, depolarization when sperm is added, while repolarizing and impenetrable layer forms |
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| when sperm hits, cortical grandules discharge and vitilline membrane potential is raised; CG materical is released to form fertilization membrane; remaining CG material forms the hyaline layer |
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| electric field pulses are used to simulate sperm entry; 4 pulses-CG release; 8-meiosis II is complete, MPF activity is decreased; 24-pronucleus formed, meiotic exit, MAPK activity decreased |
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| mitosis promoting factor; kinase - phosphorylates proteins; active during meiosis and mitosis, inactive when cell is not in M phase |
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| proteins on a cell surface that can bind strongly to proteins on other cell surfaces or in the extracellular matrix |
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| links cells to the cytoskeleton; calcium dependent |
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| composed of microtubules that radiate from a centrosome |
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| alternates between synthesis (S) and mitosis (M), no gap phases |
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| cleaves all the way through; standard view of cell cleavage |
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| too much yolk to divide the cell; divides in a corner |
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| GSK-3 degrades beta catenin when no Wnt is present; Wnt deactivates GSK-3, allowing the beta catenin to enter the nucleus and activate t-cell-specific transcription factors |
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| sea urchin cell divisions |
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| 1->4: equivalent divisions, all cells have same potential, regulative development; 4->8: cleavage plane changes, splits into top and bottom, mosaic development; 8->16: animal layer cleaves left to right, vegetal layer makes asymmetric micromeres and macromeres |
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