Term
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Definition
compose atoms
include protons, neutrons, & electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| charged atoms, outer shell has a different # of electrons |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| found in nucleus, + charge, all atoms of an element have same number of these |
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Term
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Definition
| found in nucleus, neutral charge, atoms of element differing in these # are called isotopes |
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Term
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Definition
| - charge, travel in orbital shells |
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Term
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Definition
| atoms share outer orbital electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| two atoms of an element that differ in # of neutrons |
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Term
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Definition
decay spontaneously giving off particles and energy
applications: trace atoms through metabolic processes, diagnose medical disorders |
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Term
| DLW (doubly labeled water) |
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Definition
H and O have been replaced with uncommon, heavy, non-radioactive forms of the elements deuterium and oxygen-18 or deuterium oxide-18 (D218O)
measurement of metabolic rate: administer DLW, measure elimination rates |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| 3 elements 90% of body's mass |
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Definition
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Term
| 8 additional essential elements |
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Definition
N, P, Na, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cl
nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine |
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Term
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Definition
required by body in smaller amounts
e.g. Se, Cr, Mn, Mo |
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Term
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Definition
ability of an atom to attract/pull electrons toward itself
fluorine is the strongest |
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Term
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Definition
electrons in the outermost shell
determines chemical behavior of an atom |
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Term
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Definition
| elements with a full valence shell |
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Term
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Definition
-strongest type of bonding
-in organic molecules
-form between 2 nonmetal atoms (Groups 4A, 5A, 6A, & 7A) |
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Term
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Definition
-electrons shared equally
-e.g. H2
-occurs between non-metals
-electronegativity difference 0.0-0.4 |
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Term
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Definition
-electrons shared unequally
-e.g. H2O
-between non-metals
-electronegativity difference 0.5-1.7
-shared electrons favor the more electronegative atom (partially negative)
-atom with lower electronegativity is partially positive
-DIPOLE= 2 poles created by separation of charges (lower case Greek deltas) |
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Term
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Definition
H atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom
important for water--polar substances are soluble in water |
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Term
| van der waals interactions |
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Definition
-electrons distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms can result in hot spots of + or - charges
-attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of these charges |
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Term
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Definition
-e- are transferred from one atom to another; the resulting ions are attracted to one another
-soluble in water**
-usually between metals (far L) with non-metals (far R) by becoming ions & carrying charges
-result of ELECTRON TRANSFER
-electronegativity difference >1.8 |
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Term
| Chemical properties of water necessary for metabolic processes |
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Definition
1. cohesion
2. moderation of temperature
3. insulation of bodies of water by floating ice
4. universal solvent |
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Term
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Definition
| collectively, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together (co=same molecules) |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 different molecules sticking together (e.g. water and plant cell walls) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| measure of the TOTAL amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion |
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Term
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Definition
| measure the intensity of heat due to the AVERAGE kinetic energy of molecules |
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Term
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Definition
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree C
1 kcal = 1000 cal |
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Term
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Definition
heat absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change temperature by 1 degree C
e.g. water is 1 cal/g/degree C |
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Term
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Definition
| a liquid that is a homogenous mixture of substances |
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Term
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Definition
| the dissolving agent of a solution |
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Term
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Definition
| the substance that is dissolved |
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Term
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Definition
| ionic compound is dissolved in water, each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules |
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Term
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Definition
-large molecules that do not dissolve
-e.g. cellulose, colloids
-water loving
-molecule that has an affinity for water
-polar/charged molecules
-have polar substituents (side groups)
-permanent dipole
-readily interact with water through dipole-dipole interactions (hydrogen bond)
-SOLUBLE in water
-readily transported in the blood (glucose, ketone bodies)
-do not readily cross membranes |
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Term
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Definition
stable suspensions of fine particles in liquid
e.g. gelatin |
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Term
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Definition
-non-ionic, non-polar (cannot form H bonds)
-e.g. lipids, fats, oils
-INSOLUBLE in water
-micelle formation: hydrophobic tails pushed together because of presence of water, not because they are attracted
-must travel in blood with a carrier molecule, usually bound to a protein
-FFA's bound to albumin
-vitamin A has specific binding proteins (RBPs)
-triglycerides and cholesterol carried by lipoproteins |
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Term
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Definition
-form positive ions
-loss of valence e-
-charge = group # |
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Term
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Definition
-achieve octet arrangement by gaining e-
-form negatively charged ions
-charge = Group # - 8 |
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Term
| ionic compound properties |
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Definition
-consist of cations & anions
-have ionic bonds
-high melting & boiling points
-SOLID at room temperature
-e.g. NaCl (table salt)
-symbol of metal first, symbol of non-metal second
-cation named first (element & roman numeral in parentheses for the charge if necessary--transition metals + group 4 metals)
-anion named second, change ending to -ide |
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Term
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Definition
in water (aqueous solutions/most of body), ionic compounds exist as charged ions
***Na+, K+, Cl-***** |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| important in energy metabolism (ATP) & in cell membranes (phospholipids) |
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Term
| calcium carbonate (CaCO3) |
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Definition
| common form of calcium supplements |
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Term
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Definition
-NH3 removed from amino acids during protein catabolism
-toxic if not buffered
-liver converts it to urea to be excreted in urine |
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Term
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Definition
| proton donor (increases H+ concentration of solution) |
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Term
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Definition
| proton acceptor (reduces H+ concentration) |
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Term
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Definition
[H+]
scale of 1-14
1-6 = acidic
7= neutral
8-14 = basic |
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Term
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Definition
can act as a proton donor and acceptor
minimizes changes in pH [H+] |
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Term
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Definition
indicates attraction of an atom for shared electrons
high for non-metals, low for metals |
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Term
| VSEPR Theory (valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory) |
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Definition
electron groups around a central atom
-arranged as far apart from each other as possible
-have least amount of repulsion of the negatively charged e-
-geometry determines molecular shape |
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Term
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Definition
4 e- groups, angles of 109.5 degrees
e.g. CH4 |
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Term
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Definition
3 bonding atoms, 1 lone pair
e.g. NH3 |
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Term
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Definition
2 bonding atoms, 2 lone pairs
e.g. H2O |
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Term
| water favors solubility of polar compounds |
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Definition
-OH, as on glucose
-COOH, as on amino acids
-NH2
-ionic/charged compounds (NaCl) |
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Term
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Definition
-ionic compound placed in water separates into individual ions
-nucleating agent (NaCl) alters the boiling point of water) |
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Term
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Definition
-molecules with both polar and non-polar regions
-detergents/emulsifiers
-make oil and water mix
-e.g. bile acids, membrane lipids |
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Term
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Definition
-takes place in the watery environment of the small intestine
-fats treated with bile acid (detergent)
-water soluble molecules are fine here |
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Term
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Definition
-contain C & H
-also may contain O, S, N, Br, Cl, Fl
-covalent bonds, valence e- are shared
-nonpolar, unless more electronegative atom present
-low melting and boiling points
-highly flammable
-non soluble in water unless polar group present |
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Term
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Definition
-mostly ionic or polar covalent bonds, some non polar covalent
-high melting and boiling points
-low flammability
-soluble in water unless non polar |
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Term
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Definition
contain only C and H
-saturated: all C-C bonds are single bonds
-unsaturated: contain one or more C=C double bonds |
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Term
| IUPAC prefixes for # of Carbons |
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Definition
1-meth
2-eth
3-prop
4-but
5-pent
6-hex
7-hept
8-oct
9-non
10-dec |
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Term
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Definition
different compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms
-straight chain or branched |
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Term
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Definition
-groups that branch off from the alkane forming isomers
-alkanes that are missing one H |
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Term
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Definition
| -OH group attached to a benzene ring (alkene) |
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Term
| oxidation (OIL=oxidation is loss) |
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Definition
-loss of H or addition of O
-increase # of C-O bonds
-LOSS OF H (OIL) |
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Term
| reduction (RIG=reduction is gain) |
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Definition
-gain of H or loss of O
-decrease # of C-O bonds
-GAIN OF H (RIG) |
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Term
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Definition
-if ethanol is present, it is oxidized and the Cr is reduced
-solution turns green |
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Term
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Definition
-carbonyl group attached to at least one H
-CHO
-formed by oxidation of primary alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
-carbonyl group attached to 2 C groups
-CCOC
-formed by oxidation of secondary alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
-C=O
-has a dipole (polar)
-soluble in water |
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Term
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Definition
-COOH
-carbonyl group (C=O) attached to hydroxyl group (-OH) |
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Term
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Definition
-weak acids
-produce hydronium ions in water |
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Term
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Definition
-H bonds form between 2 carboxyl groups
-carboxylic acids form these |
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Term
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Definition
-a product of the neutralization of a carboxylic acid with a strong base
-e.g. acetic acid + NaOH--> sodium acetate + H2O
-used as preservatives & flavor enhancers
-change name ending to -ate |
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Term
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Definition
-R-(C=O)-O-R
-H in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid is replaced with an alkyl group
-formed when carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol (or another carboxylic acid)
-digestion = ester hydrolysis (need them in component parts to get absorbed)
-reform esters in intestinal cells, stored in body as esters (very stable) |
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Term
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Definition
| -the reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst to produce an ester |
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Term
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Definition
| -an ester reacts with water to produce a carboxylic acid and an alcohol (need acid catalyst) |
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Term
| base hydrolysis (saponification) |
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Definition
-reaction of an ester with a strong base
-produces salt of carboxylic acid and an alcohol
-this reaction in fatty acids produces soaps |
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Term
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Definition
-emulsify fats
-contains non polar end that dissolves in non polar fats and oils & polar end that dissolves in water
-forms groups of soap molecules (micelles) that dissolve in water & are washed away |
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Term
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Definition
-membrane proteins EMBEDDED
-attached by HYDROPHOBIC interactions
-receptors, carriers, pumps, energy transducers, enzymes
-either lipid or carb attachments |
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Term
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Definition
-membrane proteins ASSOCIATED with surface through IONIC interactions
-glycoproteins (protein with carbohydrate attachment) of cell recognition complex
-oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to polypeptide side chains (glycosylation) |
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Term
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Definition
| surface cell receptors; carbohydrates on cells serve as points of attachment for other cells, infectious bacteria, viruses, toxins, hormones, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
-glycerol based phospholipids
-main structural component of biological membranes |
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Term
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Definition
-LECITHINS
-choline=alcohol: + ammonium bound to - phosphate
-EGG YOLK high in lecithins--emulsifying agent (mayo)
-lecithins also in BRAIN & NERVES |
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Term
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Definition
| -protect cell surface against harmful environmental factors by forming a mechanically stable and chemically resistant outer layer of the PM |
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Term
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Definition
-asymmetrical
-fluid--lateral movements
-differences from other membranes:
1. greater CHO
2. greater cholesterol (stability & regulation of
fluidity/permeability)
-lipid bilayer
->outer surface has carbohydrates (glycocalyx)
->asymmetrical orientation begins during synthesis of new
PM in the ER |
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Term
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Definition
-layer of carbohydrate on cell's outer surface
-carbohydrate moiety of glycoproteins & lipids in PM
->helps maintain asymmetry because oligosaccharide side
chains are located exclusively on PM layer facing AWAY
from cytoplasmic matrix
->functions: specificity markers, antennae (to pick up
signals for transmission of substances in the cell),
receptors (for hormones, nutrients, etc. that influence cell
fxn), & help regulate intracellular communication (for cell
growth & tissue formation) |
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Term
| cytoskeleton (microtrabecular lattice) |
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Definition
-consists of microtubules, microfilaments, & intermediate filaments (made of proteins)
-mechanical support
-support extracellular extensions (microvilli)
-framework for intracellular movement
-binding surface for soluble macronutrients (eg. proteins & nucleic acids)
-locomotion for specialized cells (sperm, WBCs, fibroblasts)
-pathway for intercell. comm. & transfer of RNA & DNA
-fluid portion: small molecules (glucose, AA, O2, CO2) |
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Term
| extracellular matrix (ECM) |
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Definition
-made up of glycoproteins (collagen, proteoglycans, & fibronectin)
-proteins bind to receptor proteins in PM called INTEGRINS
-functions: support, adhesion, movement, regulation |
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Term
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Definition
-enzymes associated are brought into close proximity to their substrate molecules in the aqueous portion (facilitates rxns)
-structural arrangement influences metabolic pathways
->enzymes close to substrates->oriented sequentially
->increased overall reaction velocity
-significant metabolic pathways
1. glycolysis
2. hexose monophosphate shunt
3. glycogenesis & glycogenolysis
4. fatty acid synthesis (incl. production of nonessential, unsaturated fatty acids)
-intracell. comm. among all cell components is vital for cell activation and survival |
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Term
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Definition
-oxygen use & ATP production
-all cells except RBCs
-matrix surrounded by double membrane
->outer=porous
->inner=selectively permeable: cristae increase surface
area, & site of electron transport (respiratory) chain of
oxidative phosphorylation
-mitochondrial matrix enzymes
->TCA cycle (tricarboxylic)
->beta-oxidation of fatty acids
->oxidative decarboxylation & carboxylation of pyruvate
->rxns of AA metabolism (ketone body formation in liver &
ketone body utilization in muscles & kidneys)
-fission & fusion (divide in 2)
-matrix contains:
->mitochondrial DNA (inherited only from mother, code for
proteins vital to ATP production)
->some ribosomes (limited protein synthesis) |
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Term
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Definition
-ribosomal RNA & protein
-protein synthesis in 2 locations
1. cytosol (FREE)
->proteins syn. here remain w/in cytoplasmic matrix or
are incorporated into organelles in the cell
2. outside of rough ER or nuclear envelope (BOUND)
->proteins syn. here are secreted from cell or
incorporated into an organelle's membrane
*also some in mitochondrial matrix |
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Term
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Definition
-surrounded by NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
->2 bilayer membranes (inner & outer)
->fuse to form PORES (allow macromolecules & particles to
pass through)
->nuclear side of envelope lined by NUCLEAR LAMINA
(network of protein filaments that maintain shape)
-contains GENOME
-DNA codes for proteins
DNA->mRNA->tRNA+AA->protein
-parts of genes are called regulatory regions (reg. processes)
-nutrients involved in control of gene transcription via nuclear receptors:
->vitamin A, vitamin D, fatty acids |
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Term
| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) |
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Definition
-network of membranous tubules/channels
-continuity between nuclear envelope, golgi, & PM
-rough ER (RER)
->ribosomes attached (secrete glycoproteins-proteins
covalently bonded to carbohydrates), protein synthesis
(are secreted from cell or incorporated into an
organelle's membrane)
->distributes TRANSPORT VESICLES (proteins surrounded by
membranes)
->membrane factory in cell
-smooth ER (SER)
->synthesizes lipids
->adrenal cortex & gonads (cells that syn steroid hormones)
->liver (lipoproteins)
->skeletal muscle called SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (site
for calcium ion pump; necessary for contractile process)
->metabolizes carbohydrates
->detoxifies drugs & poisons
->stores calcium ions |
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Term
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Definition
-protein trafficking & sorting
-prominent in neurons & secretory cells
-CISTERNAE ("stacks"): 4-8 membrane-enclosed flattened cisternae
-cis-Golgi network
->entrance
->accepts newly syn proteins from ER (fuses vesicles)
-trans-Golgi network
->exit
->sorts proteins for delivery (buds off vesicles) |
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Term
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Definition
-catabolic oxidative enzymes
-oxidative rxns using O2
-produce H2O2 (toxic): used/degraded in peroxisome
-oxidizes long chain fatty acids (>20 C) to shorter ones, which then go to the mitochondria for oxidation
-detoxifying rxns (e.g. oxidation of ethanol->acetaldehyde) |
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Term
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Definition
-catabolic (digestive)->intracellular DIGESTION
-membranous sac of HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES that can digest macromolecules (proteins, fats, polysac's, & nucleic acids)
-enzymes work best in its acidic environment
-abundant in cells like macrophages & leukocytes
-PHAGOCYTOSIS
-AUTOLYSIS/AUTOPHAGY (recycling)
->controlled degradation of cellular components
->intracell. components digested following degeneration or
cellular injury (survival mechanism) 1
->e.g. mitochondria of liver renewed by autolysis ~10 days
-bone reabsorption (osteoclasts)
-can fuse w/another organelle or part of cytosol
-APOPTOSIS
->critical role in programmed destruction of cells |
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Term
| G protein coupled receptors (GCPRs) |
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Definition
-largest family of cell-surface receptors
-works with G proteins
-acts as an on/off switch (GDP bound = inactive)
-replace GDP with GTP->enzyme activates & produces a cellular response |
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Term
| receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) |
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Definition
-membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosine's
-can trigger multiple signal transduction pathways at once
-abnormal fxn associated with many cancers |
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Term
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Definition
-acts as a gate when the receptor changes shape
-signal molecule binds as a ligand, shape changes, opens channels to allow specific ions (e.g. Na+, Ca2+) to pass through the channel in the receptor protein |
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Term
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Definition
-transfer phosphates from ATP to protein
-PHOSPHORYLATION
-convert enzymes into active forms |
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Term
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Definition
-remove phosphates from proteins
-DEPHOSPHORYLATION |
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Term
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Definition
-extracellular signal molecule that binds to receptor
-"first messenger" |
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Term
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Definition
-small, non protein, water-soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion
-participate in pathways initiated by GCPRs and RTKs
-e.g. cAMP (one of the most widely used), calcium ions, IP3, DAG |
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Term
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Definition
-enzyme in the PM
-converts ATP to cAMP in response to extracellular signal
-regulated by G proteins |
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Term
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Definition
-second messenger
-formed by conversion from ATP by adenylyl cyclase
-activator of protein kinases |
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