Term
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Definition
| Anantomy visible to the naked eye |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of how living organisms perform vital functions |
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Term
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Definition
| Study of anantomy of organ systems |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of structures in a particular region, such as a limb |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of internal/external structures and the physical relationships between body parts |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons that control the set point in a feedback system |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Chemicals released by one neuron that affect the activity of a second neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| In a neuron, the action potential moving from the axon to the cell body |
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Term
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Definition
| In a neuron, the action potential moving from the cell body to the axon |
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Term
| Which direction to action potentials travel in neurons? |
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Definition
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Term
| Neuron: Synaptic Terminals |
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Definition
| Function: Transmits signals to other neurons and effector organs |
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Term
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Definition
| Function: Conducts action potential; includes the axon hillock (the start of the axon and where action potentail initiation starts) |
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Term
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Definition
| The "Business district". Includes regular cell organelles (mito., ER, Golgi ect.). Function: Integrates information and initiates response. |
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Term
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Definition
| Function: Receives information from the enviornment and other neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialized "exciteable" cells that maintain and conduct energy. Allow for communication via electrical impulses. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drives system away from set point. Ex: uterine contractions during childbirth, or vasopressin the the prarie vole |
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Term
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Definition
| Drives system towards set point. In other words, it counteracts the change. Ex: shivering to heat up the body when the temp. has dipped below normal (the set point) |
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Term
|
Definition
1. Information
2. Receptor
3. Control Center
4. Effector
5.Effect
6. Change in System |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of maintaining a relatively stable internal enviornment. It is not a static process (it flucutates), it requires energy, and its conditions are maintained via feedback systems. |
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Term
| Information Processing Steps |
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Definition
1. Sensor
Sensory Input
2. Control center (interneurons)
3. Integration
4. Motor output |
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Term
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Definition
| Clustering of sensory neurons/interneurons at the anterior end (head) |
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Term
| Why can most neurons not divide? |
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Definition
| Because they do not have centrioles, which are required for cell division. |
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Term
| Are action potentials electrical or chemical? |
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Definition
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Term
| Name 4 types of nervous system organization in animals |
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Definition
1. Nerve net, like in the hydra
2. Nerves, like in the sea star
3. Cephalization, like in planaria
4. CNS and PNS, like in humans |
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Term
Connective Tissue
(function and types) |
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Definition
Function: Connects other tissues together.
Types: Losse connective, cartilage, fibrous connective, adipose, bone, blood |
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Term
|
Definition
Central Nervous System
Function: integration and processing
Includes: Brain and Spinal Chord |
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Term
| Why is the spinal chord considered part of the CNS? |
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Definition
| Because it can make desicions |
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Term
|
Definition
Peripheral Nervous System
Functions: Sensory and motor neurons |
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Term
| At rest, the inside of a neuron is (positive/negative), compared to the outside, which is (positive/negative). |
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Definition
| At rest, the inside of a neuron is negative, compared to the outside, which is positive. |
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Term
| K⁺ and Na⁺ channels are ______, meaning that energy is NOT required to pass through them. |
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Definition
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Term
| Na⁺/K⁺ pumps are _____, meaning that energy IS required for material to pass through. |
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Definition
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Term
| In a neuron at rest, the concentration of Na⁺ inside is (low/high), and the concentration outside is (low/high). |
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Definition
| In a neuron at rest, the concentration of Na⁺ inside is low, and the concentration outside is high. |
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Term
| In a neuron at rest, the concentration of K⁺ inside is (low/high), and the concentration outside is (low/high). |
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Definition
| In a neuron at rest, the concentration of K⁺ inside is high, and the concentration outside is low. |
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Term
| In a neuron at rest, Na⁺ gates are (open/closed). |
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Definition
| In a neuron at rest, Na⁺ gates are closed. |
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Term
| In a neuron at rest, what is happening with the K⁺ channels? |
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Definition
| Most channels are closed at rest, while a subset of "leaky" K⁺ channels are left open, allowing some K⁺ to diffuse out. |
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Term
| How many of each ions does a sodium-potassium pump pump, and are they pumped in or out of the neuron? |
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Definition
| A sodium-postassium pump pumps 2 K⁺ in and 3 Na⁺ out. |
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Term
| What is the net effect of the K⁺ and Na⁺ channels and the K⁺/ Na⁺ pump? |
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Definition
| More positive ions are moved out than in, causing a negative charge to develop inside the neuron. |
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Term
| Equalibrium Potential in the Neuron |
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Definition
| When the amount of positive ions leaving equals the amount of negative ions entering. |
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Term
| When a stimulus opens Na⁺ channels, what happens to the neuron? |
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Definition
| Na⁺ rushes in, resulting in the depolarization of the cell. In other words, the cell becomes less negative. |
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Term
| When a stimulus opens K⁺ channels, what happens to the neuron? |
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Definition
| K⁺ rushes out, resulting in the hyperpolarization of the neuron. In other words, the cell becomes more negative. |
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Term
| Neurons use changes in _______ ________ to communicate. |
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Definition
| Neurons use changes in membrane potential to communicate. |
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Term
| What are the two primary types of communication signals that neurons use? |
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Definition
| Graded potentials and action potentials |
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Term
|
Definition
| Graded potentials are for short range communication between neurons, and occurs between dentrites and the cell body. They cause a local change in membrane potential. |
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Term
| Graded potentials are (independent/dependent) upon stimulus strength. |
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Definition
| Graded potentials are dependent upon stimulus strength. |
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Term
| Describe weak vs. strong graded potentials in regards to Na⁺ gates. |
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Definition
| Weak graded potentials briefly open Na⁺ gates. Strong graded potentials are a prolonged opening of Na⁺ gates. Also, the strength of decreases with distance from the source. |
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Term
| Graded potentials intiate __________. |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A short-lived, self-propagating depolarization event |
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Term
| Where do action potentials occur? |
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Definition
| Only on neuron axons or muscle sarcolemma |
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Term
| The magnitude of an action potential is (independant/dependant) on signal strength. |
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Definition
| The magnitude of an action potential is independant on signal strength. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A period in time where the cell can not fire additional actio potentials. This allows the cell to recharge. |
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Term
| Absolute Refractory Period |
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Definition
| Na and K gates are open, so it is impossible for an action potential to fire. |
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Term
| Relative Refractory Period |
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Definition
| A period where the firing of an action potential is possible, but the graded potential needs to be strong. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Found on newts. TTX is a toxin that works by sitting on top of Na channels and inhibiting action potentials. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Occurs on unmylenated axons in neurons. It is a continuous chain-rxn along an axon membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Occurs on mylenated axons. The action potential jumps from Schwann node to node, increasing the speed of impulse transmission and electrically insulating neurons from one another. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The spaces between Schwann cells on the axon of a neuron. Na/K pumps lie in the Nodes of Ranvier. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Results from demylenation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Functional point of contact between two neurons or a neuron and an effector cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| Gap junctions connect neurons allowing for direct transfer of ions. The ability to stop the signal is slow. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitters mediate signal transfer. This is much slower than electrical, but it allows for regulation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| During a synapse, the cell that brings the signal in. It has synaptic vesicles, which contain neurotransmitters. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Located on presynaptic cells and contain neurotransmitters. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Dendrites. During a synapse, the cell that receives the signal. It has receptor proteins for neurotransmitters. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The space between a presynaptic and postsynaptic cell. It is approx. 30-50 nm across. |
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|
Term
| [Ca⁺⁺] is (high/low) on the inside of the cell, and (high/low) outside of the cell. |
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Definition
| [Ca⁺⁺] is low on the inside of the cell, and high outside of the cell. |
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|
Term
| In what 3 ways are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft? |
|
Definition
1. Enzyme Degradation
2. Presynaptic Cell Reuptake
3. Diffusion from cleft |
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|
Term
| EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential) |
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Definition
| A summation of EPSP's trigger a postsynaptic cell and induce an action potential. One alone cannot induce an action potential. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Simultaenous stimulation from separate synapses. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Repeated stimulation from a singal synapse. |
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|
Term
| IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential) |
|
Definition
| Can cause a negative response, hyperpolarizing the cell OR a positive response, depolarizing the cell. Either way, the action peotnail is inhibted because it does not reach the correct threshold. |
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|
Term
| What are the 5 major types of neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
1. Acetylcholine
2. Biogenic Amines ("feel good" effect)
3. Amino Acids
4. Neuropeptides (natural opiates)
5. Gases |
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Term
|
Definition
| Electrical impulses that reach the brain via sensory neurons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Interpretation of electrical impulses by the brain |
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Term
|
Definition
| Strengthening of stimulus signal |
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Term
|
Definition
| Decrease in repsonsivness over time |
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|
Term
| What are the 4 steps of a stimulus pathway? |
|
Definition
1. Reception: Receptor detects stimuli
2. Transduction: Stimuli converted to electricl impulse
3. Transmission: Impulse conducted to CNS
4. Summation: Integration of signal by CNS |
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|
Term
| The intensity of a stimulus signal depends on ____ ______ _______. |
|
Definition
| The intensity of a stimulus signal depends on action potential frequency. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Receptors that detect physical deformation, such as touch. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A type of mechanoreceptors. They moniter muscle stretch. In other words, you know where your body is in space. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A type of mechanoreceptor that detects motion, such as in the ear. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Pain receptors that are stimulated by inflamed or damaged tissue. Releases and binds K⁺ |
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Term
|
Definition
| Receptors that detect change in solute concentration. Ex: Thirst |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Electromagnetic Receptors |
|
Definition
Stimulation by electromagnetic energy. Ex: Snake Perceiving heat
Ex: Whales detecting magnetic field
Ex: Humans detecting light |
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Term
| What are the different types of eyes that invertabrates posess? |
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Definition
| Light detection eyes and image forming eyes (compound or single lens) |
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Term
| Desribe an ocellus and name an animal that has them. |
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Definition
| Ocelli are simple, light detection eyes that consist of a cup with a pigmented layer, and neural elements in the front that act as a screen. Planaria. |
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Term
| Desribe a compound eye and name an animal that posesses them. |
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Definition
| Compound eyes are image forming, and are made up of multiple ommatidia (facts, lens). They are accurate at detecting movement because each ommatidia is like an inidividual eye. Insects or crustaceans. |
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|
Term
| Name an example of an invertebrate animal that has a single-lens eye. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The outermost covering of the eye. It is transparent and allows light into the eye. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The "doorway" of the eye. It regulates the amount of light entering the eye. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The "door frame" of the eye. Surrounds the pupil. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The part of the eye that focuses light on the back of the eye. The lens is a flattened disc that allows us to change the focus point. |
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|
Term
| How do fish change their eye's focal point? In other words, how do their eyes dectect light at different angles? |
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Definition
| Fish can move their lens back and forth to detect light at any angle. |
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Term
| How do most mammals change their eye's focal point? In other words, how do their eyes dectect light at different angles? |
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Definition
| Most mammals are able to change the shape of their lens (accomadation). Sensory ligaments hold the lens in place, while ciliary muscles bulge and flatten. |
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|
Term
| Why do people need reading glasses as they age? |
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Definition
| Because their lens looses elacticity, therefore they can not properly accomidate for all light angles. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The inner surface of the eye. The retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones). Bends 85% of light. |
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|
Term
| Rods detect _____ ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is color vision common in lower vertebrates, but not mammals? |
|
Definition
| Most mammals are nocturnal, therefore it is more beneficial for them to have more rods for light detection. |
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|
Term
| What is rhodopsin and what does it trigger? |
|
Definition
| Rhodopsin are the light absorbing structures in the eye, and they trigger a transduction pathway. |
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|
Term
| What happens when rhodopspin absorbs light? |
|
Definition
| Retinal changes shape and separates from opsin, activating the opsin. |
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|
Term
| Why does it take several minutes for eyes to adjust to the dark? |
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Definition
| It takes several minutes because you must wait for retinal to rejoin with the opsin. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The term used when retinal detaches from opsin in rhodopsin. Developed from the observation of frogs' eyes turning from red to white. |
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|
Term
| In a DARK response, rhodopsin is (active/inactive), Na⁺ channels are (open/closed), and the rod is (hyperpolarized/depolarized). |
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Definition
| In a DARK response, rhodopsin is inactive, Na⁺ channels are open and the rod is depolarized. |
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|
Term
| In a LIGHT response, rhodopsin is (active/inactive), Na⁺ channels are (open/closed), and the rod is (hyperpolarized/depolarized). |
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Definition
| In a LIGHT response, rhodopsin is active, Na⁺ channels are closed, and the rod is hyperpolarized. |
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|
Term
| What is glutamate, and when is it released? |
|
Definition
| Glutamate is an inhibitory neurotransmitters that is release in the absence of light (when the rod depolarizes). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Pathway of visual processing that leads from the rod, to biopolar cell, to ganglion cell. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Pathway of visual processing where horizontal/amacrine cells link neighboring cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Horizontal cells inhibit nearby cells from firing, which allows for auqity (no bluriness). |
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|
Term
| What are the 3 types of skeletons? |
|
Definition
| Hydrostatic, internal, external |
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|
Term
| What is a hydrostatic skeleton, how is movement achieved with one and what types of animals have one? |
|
Definition
| A skeletal system that relies on fluid-filled compartments for support. Movement through peristalisis. Animals include cnidarians, annelids, flatworms, nematodes. |
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|
Term
| What is an exoskeleton composed of and what types of animals have one? |
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Definition
| An exoskeleton is a rigid encasement of chitin or calcium carbonate. Exoskeletons must be periodically shed. Insects and crustaceans have exoskeleton. |
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|
Term
| What are the benefits of an endoskeleton? |
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Definition
| They grow with the body and are relatively lightweight. |
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|
Term
| How many bones are in the human body? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Skull, verterbal column, rib cage |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What types of tissues does the skeletal system include? |
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Definition
| Bone, cartilage, ligaments/tendons |
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|
Term
| Name two types of joints and the movement enabled by them. |
|
Definition
1. Ball and socket, enables 3d movement
2. Hinge, enables 2d movement |
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|
Term
| Name the 5 functions of muscles. |
|
Definition
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture
3. Support soft tissue
4. Guard entrances/exits
5. Maintain body temp. |
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|
Term
| In what three ways does muscle produce movement? |
|
Definition
1. Skeletal -- Movement
2. Cardiac -- Blood pressure
3. Smooth -- Propulsion (peristalisis, uteruine contractions) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Results from a lack of abdominal muscles. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The outside muscle covering. This forms into tendons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Divides muscle tissue into fascicles (compartments). This part of the muscle contains blood vessels and nerves. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A layer of muscle that surrounds individual muscle fibers and ties them together. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The cell membrane of a muscle cell. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The cytoplasm of a muscle cell. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A network of passageways in a muscle cell that is continuous with the external enviornment. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A specialized ER in a muscle cell. Is a storage container for Ca ⁺⁺. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Cylinidrical structures in a muscle cell that contain contractile elements. |
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|
Term
| What makes up the "triad" in a muscle fiber? |
|
Definition
| Transverse tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and myofibrils |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| These are contractile proteins (actin and myosin) that are within myofibrils in a muscle fiber. |
|
|
Term
| Actin is a (thick/thin) filament. |
|
Definition
| Actin is a thin filament. |
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|
Term
| Myosin is a (thick/thin) filament. |
|
Definition
| Myosin is a thick filament. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Repeating units of myofilaments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The disc bewtween myosin and actin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Disc "stiching" holding myosin in place. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Actin with the Z line. Light can pass through here. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Includes myosin. Light can not pass through here. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the anantomy of a thick filament. |
|
Definition
| A thick filament is composed of many myosin molecules. The have tails, where the molecules attach together, and heads, where they bind with thin filaments. (Looks like two golf clubs twisted together) |
|
|
Term
| Describe the anatomy of a thin filament. |
|
Definition
| Thin filaments are composed of 2 strands of interwoven actin molecules. They also have tropomyosin and troponin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Part of thin filaments in a myofibril of a muscle fiber. This is a protein that adheres tightly to actin and covers active sites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Troponin is in the thin filments of myofibrils of muscle fibers. Troponin binds tropomyosin to actin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The junction between a neuron and a muscle fiber. Muscle fibers each only have 1 connection that is either on or off. |
|
|
Term
| What initiates cross-bridging in a muscel fiber? |
|
Definition
| Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. |
|
|
Term
| What is the role of creatine phosphate in muscle fiber cross-bridging events? |
|
Definition
| Creatine phosphate allows for quick phosphorylation of ADP. This is short term energy. The ATP created is used to detatch myosin from actin and to recock the myosin head. |
|
|
Term
| When does a cross-bridging event in a muscle fiber cease? |
|
Definition
| When the action potentials cease. |
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitter is released to trigger a muscle contraction event? |
|
Definition
| Acetylcholine, which is always excitatory. |
|
|
Term
| Action potentials travel deep into a muscle fiber via _______ ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In a muscle contraction event, ______ binds with ______ to reveal the active sites on actin. |
|
Definition
| In a muscle contraction event, Ca++ binds with troponin to reveal the active sites on actin. |
|
|
Term
| What is acetylcholine broken down by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| At the end of a muscle fiber cross-bridging event, Ca++ returns to the _____ ______ via (active/passive) transport. |
|
Definition
| At the end of a muscle fiber cross-bridging event, Ca++ returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum via active transport. |
|
|
Term
| Why does Rigor Mortis occur? |
|
Definition
| Ca++ can not return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum after a cross-bridging event in a muscle fiber. |
|
|
Term
| What causes Lou Gerig's Disease? |
|
Definition
| This is a nervous system disorder where signal pathways to the muscle are lost. |
|
|
Term
| What causes tetanus (disease)? |
|
Definition
| The tetanus bacteria produces a waste product that mimicks ACh and tells the muscles to contract. |
|
|
Term
| What causes disease from botulism? |
|
Definition
| The bacteria plugs receptors on muscle fibers, inhibiting synapses and muscle activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The force exerted on an object by a contracting muscle. |
|
|
Term
| What regulates muscle tension production? |
|
Definition
| The number of muscle fibers activated and the frequency of stimulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers innervated by it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Addition/Summation of motor units to produce smooth, steady muscle tension. |
|
|
Term
| How many muscle fibers per motor unit are needed for fine control? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How many muscle fibers per motor unit are needed for gross control? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A single stimulus-contraction-relaxation sequence of muscle fibers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During muscle tension production, the period between the stimulus and tension development. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During muscle contraction, the period where muscle tension reaches its peak. Here Ca++ is released and cross-bridging begins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During a muscle contraction, the period when tension falls to resting level. Here Ca++ reuptake occurs and cross-bridging detachment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the muscle, rapid cycles of contraction and relaxation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The addition of twitches to produce a more powerful contraction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During muscle contraction, rapid stimulation erases the relaxation phase. This is observed in the animal body for most muscle contractions. |
|
|
Term
| What happens if a sarcomere is too contracted? |
|
Definition
| There is no room for movement and poor cross-bridging formation. |
|
|
Term
| What happens if a sarcomere is too stretched? |
|
Definition
| There is no cross-bridge formation. |
|
|
Term
| Regarding muscle stretch, where is maximal muscle force at? |
|
Definition
| Maximal muscle force is at/near normal resting lenght. |
|
|
Term
What ultimately controls each of the following: Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle |
|
Definition
Skeletal -- Neurons
Cardiac -- Automaticity (pacemaker cells)
Smooth -- Neurons, automaticity, hormones |
|
|
Term
| Where is the Ca++ source for smooth muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where is the Ca++ source for cardiac muscle? |
|
Definition
| The sarcoplasmic reticulum or across the sarcomlemma. |
|
|
Term
| In which of the following does tetanus occur: Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle |
|
Definition
| Tentanus can occur in skeletal and smooth muscle, but NOT cardiac |
|
|
Term
| How are filaments organized in smooth muscle? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres are scattered throughout the sarcoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| How are filaments organized in skeletal muscle? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres are aligned along myofibrils. |
|
|
Term
| How are filaments organized in cardiac muscle? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres are aligned along myofibrils. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Slow and long duration communication via hormones and various cells that secrete/receive them. |
|
|
Term
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Definition
| A group of cells that secrete substances into the bloodstream. |
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Term
| What type of cells are glands made of? |
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Definition
| Glandular Secretory Cells, which are epithelial tissue (cube-shaped and in a simple layer). |
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Term
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Definition
| Ducts; they secrete substances outside of the body, such as sweat glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical messengers released by one cell to travel to another cell where an effect is observed. |
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Term
| What are the three classes of hormones, and which is largest? |
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Definition
1. Amino acid derivatives
2. Peptide hormones (largest)
3. Steroid hormones |
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Term
| What is and example of an amino acid derivative hormone? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is an example of a peptide hormone? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is an example of a steroid hormone? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Fatty acid derivatives that induce inflammation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells specialized to respond to hormones. |
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Term
| What are some ways that target cells respond to hormones (generally)? |
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Definition
| They alter cells by changing identities, activites, or quantities of proteins. |
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Term
| Chemical signals are ______ _______, therefore they can have multiple effects. |
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Definition
| Chemical signals are receptor dependent therefore they can have multiple effects. |
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Term
| Chemical signals can reach their receptors via one of these two systems depending on size and charge. |
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Definition
1. The second messenger system for large and charged signals.
2. Intracellular receptor system for hydrophobic signals. |
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Term
| Do peptide hormones use the 2nd messeger system or the intracellular receptor system? |
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Definition
| The 2nd messenger system because they are large and charged. |
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Term
| Do steroids use the 2nd messeger system or the intracellular receptor system? |
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Definition
| The intracellular receptor system because they are smaller and hydrophobic. |
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Term
| Describe the 2nd messenger system in the endocrine system. |
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Definition
| First, the chemical signal reaches are recetor on the cell membrane. This triggers a 2nd messenger, which then triggers biochemical rxns and a response. |
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Term
| Name 3 examples of 2nd messengers in the 2nd messenger system of the endocrine system. |
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Definition
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