Term
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Definition
| an age-specific decline in survival
occurs when the probability of dying increases w/ increasing age |
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Term
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Definition
| senescence is common in the wild
senescence begins after sexual maturity
it is accelerated in species in which individuals produced many litters
decelerated in species in which individuals came into sexual maturity at a later age
decelerated in large-brained species |
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Term
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Definition
| genes which have more than one effect on an organism that hurt an animals fitness
gene 1 can affect trait 1 at time 1 and trait 2 at time 2 (ex: a gene causes an individual to be bigger at a young age, and then the gene reduces visual acuity at an older age, so natural selection will still choose this gene) |
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Term
| abnormal abdomen gene in fruit flies |
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Definition
| related to antagonistic pleiotropy increases early reproduction, but also speeds up senescence and decreases longevity |
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Term
| 4 genetic diseases in humans which have pleiotropic effects |
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Definition
| Huntington's disease
idiopathic hemochromatosis
myotonic dystrophy
Alzheimer's disease |
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Term
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Definition
| under some circumstances, it may pay for organisms to divert energy and resources from normal maintainence and repair associated w/ traits that have little connection to reproduction (somatic traits) and spend energy on traits related to reproduction
this leads to decreased longevity |
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Term
| the disposable soma theory differs from the antagonistic pleiotropy theory in that... |
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Definition
| the disposable soma theory doesn't assume that a single gene has multiple effects, just that allocation decisions are made w/ respect to somatic repair and maintenance. |
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Term
| the disposable soma theory predicts that longevity should be generally lower in: |
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Definition
| 1.) species where large investments are made in traits relating to reproduction, and
2.) the sex that invests more in reproduction |
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Term
| according to evolutionary theory, there are only 2 ways to spend one's resources: |
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Definition
| 1.) on reproduction
2.) on growth and normal body maintainence |
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Term
| disposable soma theory and human longevity |
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Definition
| for the wealthy farmer class, women who had lots of children lived LONGER,
for the middle class there was no relationship between reproduction and life span,
and for the poor, more children DID lead to earlier death.
the negative relationship b/w childbearing and longevity is most pronounced in families w/ little money |
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Term
| tsetse flies and longevity |
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Definition
| females put in cages w/ few females and many males: females longevity was reduced> due to so many males courting them all the time
females put in cages w/ many females and few males: males longevity was reduced> males needed to court vigorously which cost much energy |
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Term
| longevity and extending life spans |
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Definition
| fruit flies who mated later than normal had significantly increased longevity |
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Term
| glucocorticoids ('stress hormones') and aging |
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Definition
| excessive exposure may lead to diseases like diabetes or hypertension
high levels suppress the immune system
messes w/ hippocampal-dependent learning
inhibits nerve growth
promotes neuron death |
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Term
| heat-shock proteins and aging |
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Definition
| heat-shock proteins play many roles in response to stress
younger rats are able to transcribe heat-shock proteins more quickly than older rats |
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Term
| avoidance of disease-filled habitats |
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Definition
| natural selection selects traits that help minimize animal's exposure to disease. 2 most likely ways:
1.) the avoidance of areas w/ pathogens
2.) the avoidance of individuals who are ill. |
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Term
| gray treefrogs and oviposition site |
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Definition
| choice of oviposition site is known to affect larval performance and mortality
snails contain parasites that are passed onto frogs
frogs favor laying eggs in ponds w/o snails |
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Term
| avoidance of diseased invididuals |
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Definition
| in bullfrogs, uninfected frogs prefer to associate w/ other uninfected individuals
tadpoles assess a frogs illness by chemical, not visual cues |
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Term
| self-medicating falls into 2 categories: |
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Definition
| 1.) preventative - actions taken to prevent sickness
2.) therapeutic - actions taken to alleviate sickness once an animal is ill |
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Term
| examples of self-medication in nonhumans: |
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Definition
| birds use antibacterial plants in their nests
gorillas consume soil and rocks for digestive purposes
"anting" in birds - rubbing crushed ants on their skin to soothe irritated skin
"fur rubbing" in primates - rubbing various fruits to soothe skin |
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Term
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Definition
| spices have antibacterial properties
as temp. increases, the amt. of spices used increases |
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Term
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Definition
| consistent long-term phenotypic behavioral differences among individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to take risks in both familiar and unfamiliar situations |
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Term
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Definition
| the reluctance to take risks or engage in unfamiliar activity |
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Term
| bold and inhibited pumpkinseeds |
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Definition
| fish were trapped in 2 ways: 1.) placing traps in the water (only bold fish would go near these) and 2.) seining the water w/ a net, catching both bold and shy fish
trapped fish were less likely to swim away from humans
trapped fish were more likely to forage away from other fish, eating 3x as many copepods |
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Term
| guppies, boldness, and predator inspection |
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Definition
| bold fish are eaten more than inhibited fish
bold fish are more attractive to the opposite sex
bold fish learn faster |
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Term
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Definition
| females hold alpha status and dominance is inherited maternally
hyena personality can be seen across 5 traits:
assertiveness, excitability, human-directed agreeableness, sociability, and curiosity.
age and rank does not correlate w/ these traits, but sex did.
there is a good agreement between major personality traits across hyenas and primates |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 male mating morphs:
1.) independent males form leks and guard their girls from other independent men
2.) satellite males temporarily share an independent male's lek spot and forn an "uneasy alliance"
females prefer areas w/ both morphs
mating strategy in males is inherited via a single locus w/ 2 alleles, w/ the allele for satellite being dominant.
females injected w/ testosterone actually formed leks (lesbians...) |
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Term
| learning and personality in great tits |
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Definition
| "fast" birds quickly approach novel objects and explore new places rapidly, while "slow" birds are more reluctant to do both.
when paired with "tutor" birds, slow birds did not use their help to find new food, while fast birds learned from the tutors (they acted like scroungers) |
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Term
| chimpanzee personalities and cultural transmission |
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Definition
| within groups there is similar behavior but b/w groups there is different behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| a coherent set of behavioral and physiological stress responses which is consistent over time and which is characteristic of a certain group of animals |
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Term
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Definition
| active response: proactive, entails territorial control and aggression
conservation-withdrawal: reactive, characterized by immobility and low levels of aggression |
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Term
| individuals who were aggressive to conspecifics handled new challenges (better/worse) than those who were less aggressive. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| most dogs can learn the tasks to be a guide dog, but FEAR often interferes w/ their chances.
genetic fearfulness has a strong underlying genetic component
labs were the most easily trained, while german shepherds were the most difficult |
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Term
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Definition
| controlled by genetic predisposition
freshwater fish: live in small pond in moist weather, in cold seasons migrate downstream to larger bodies of water that don't freeze. some species travel 1000's of miles
invertibrates migrate |
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Term
| monarch butterfly migration |
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Definition
| migration is costly, but enormous benefits in migrating
they avoid bad weather, seasonal shortages of food |
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Term
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Definition
| not efficient at migration
they don't migrate 1000's of miles, sometimes 100's (caribou) |
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Term
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Definition
| shortening days
lower temperatures
changing moisture |
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Term
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Definition
| odors, olfaction
magnetic senses (magnetic field of earth)
celestial-visual (many nocturnal animals use stars, like birds and fish)
ocean currents (could be tactile cues) |
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Term
| why don't some species migrate? |
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Definition
| migration is costly. some animals will withstand winter, putting on more weight |
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Term
| only a select few bird species migrate: |
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Definition
| Passerine (song birds) - migrate at night. over 90% do (shielded from sun)
some birds split the year evenly: have 2 reproductive cycles.
must put on extra weight - some can't eat at all during migration
breeding habitats are similar - some species have 2 dissimilar habitats |
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Term
| different navigation cues |
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Definition
| dead reckoning: internal coding of distance and direction w/ respect to body orientation, independent of objects outside the animal.
land marks: cues not at goal point. tells animal it must pass a certain distance. positions b/w landmarks guide them.
relative position: relative to stimuli in the environment.
beacons: stimulus that marks a particular location (ex. tree)
geometric cue: extensive in space. some animals follow the coastline. |
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Term
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Definition
| overt aggression and symbolic aggression (threats)
much more frequent among males |
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Term
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Definition
| mediates aggression, mating behavior and territoriality. after mating, levels fall. especially when helping to rear offspring. in poygamous species, males maintain testosterone throughout mating season.
in monogamous situations, males breed for a longer pd. of time |
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Term
| injecting testosterone in house sparrows... |
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Definition
| increases aggression, but rarely results in a lower ranking male taking over.
if it's injected before the hierarchy is decided, the male can take over |
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Term
| the production of testosterone |
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Definition
| T comes from the testes. b/w reproductive cells are interstitial cells which produce T. they get a signal from the endocrine system when the pituitary gland secretes lutenizing hormone.
communication is through the blood
the brain makes decisions about engaging in agonistic activity or mating activity |
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Term
| testosterone in polyandrous species |
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Definition
| females are more aggressive and have higher degree of T, which comes from cortex (adrenal gland)
female adrenal gland produces more T than males |
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Term
| meta-analysis of T and aggression in humans |
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Definition
| aggression in humans is less correlated w/ T than avian species. there is still a positive correlation but not as strong. |
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Term
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Definition
| siblicide: killing one's sibling
among birds: avial siblicide: stems from limiting food being provided from parents
older nestlings can peck younger siblings to death
ground-dwelling avian species: parents are concerned about unrelated offspring getting into their nest.
parents usually do nothing - aggression is correlated w/ inadequate resources |
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Term
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Definition
| females always lay 2 eggs a few days apart. the first layed egg is always bigger and kills sibling or rolls unhatched egg out of nest
why does the mother produce 2 eggs?
2 eggs is the mother's defense against one egg not being fertilized or one not being healthy (it's their insurance policy)
22% of the time the 1st born dies |
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Term
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Definition
| when one out of two siblings dies regardless of environmental circumstances. parents raise only one offspring during the breeding season. |
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Term
| great egret and cattle egret |
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Definition
| siblicide is more dependent on environment. only when there is insufficient food = facultative siblicide
typically parents will lay many eggs. but they are layed before magnitude of food supply is known. |
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Term
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Definition
| when weight fell 20% below normal it began attacking weaker nestmate. evidence of being dependent on food deprivation. |
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Term
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Definition
| in all avian species, weaker nestlings will die. larger nestling is more effective at begging for food |
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Term
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Definition
| in many species, males are larger than females |
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Term
| extrapair copulations and nestlings |
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Definition
| on average, nestlings are less related to eachother because they have different fathers |
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Term
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Definition
| pigs: young will kill eachother
antelopes as well
(COMPETITION FOR MILK) |
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Term
| siblicide in reptiles and amphibians |
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Definition
| larger offspring eat smaller offspring. little to no parental care. |
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Term
| game theory of aggression (principles) |
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Definition
| goal objects: 2 protagonists don't always see the same value
marginal return theorem: "A dollar is worth more to someone who makes $10/hr than someone who makes $100/hr"
larger animal has less of a risk ot be injured than small animal |
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Term
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Definition
| hummingbirds use feeding device as weapon. threats: spread tail and show colors of feathers. if that doesn't work, use force.
mantis shrimp: shield themselves w/ their tail
rattlesnakes: have fighting rules (don't bite, slam to ground)
hippos: tusks used for fighting only
beetles: try to pry opponent from holding on |
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Term
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Definition
| chimps attempt to avoid aggression through eye gaze and grooming behavior
reconciliation behavior: hold up hands like humans, hold head down, hug and kiss |
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Term
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Definition
| masturbate / mount eachother
who gets to mate w/ female? solve problem by both mating w/ her. fathers have high parental investment toward all kids. |
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Term
| aggression is different than predation: |
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Definition
aggression is w/i a species
predation usually b/w species
aggression is stressful. prey secrete large amts. of glucocorticoids. these hormones allow muscles and neurons to get more nutrients - useful in emergency |
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Term
| alpha males in polygamous species |
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Definition
| chronic stress is disruptive of long term muscle tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| activity not overtly functional. it is subtle.
mostly in mammals, some avians.
more play behavior in carnivores than herbivores
20-60% of excess energy is play energy serves in the development of organism
all play is aimed at motor development
social play is more energetic than others. beginning of developing long lasting relationships. dominance hierarchy and courtship
males usually engage in more play than females (inject females w/ testosterone, increase play)
Darwinian's think play is functional
others think play is a biproduct: epiphenomenal (does nothing) |
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Term
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Definition
| waving paws, rolling over on one's back
canines: bowing of the head. rotate, spin around, circling behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| necessary to get younger one to engage in play activity
primates: adults play w/ young. adults allow the young to dominate situation (role reversal - to teach young behaviors it might need later on) |
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Term
| longitudinal studies of play behavior |
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Definition
following an organism throughout its lifespan
-trying to learn the function of play behavior
-children who play inventively w/ toys= more creative as adult
species w/ greater behavioral plasticity in adulthood show greater amt of play behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| deterioration of physical and mental processes w/ increase of age.
contrast w/ maturation: up to around 19. then slide downhill and we deteriorate.
older people = wiser? if this is true, they have a greater accumulated knowledge but after 19 all people slow down in ability to reason
correlated w/ sexual activity - around time of sexual maturity, deterioration occurs more rapidly. |
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Term
| senescence in different species |
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Definition
| song bird - matures at 1 yr. lives 4 years. the ratio is 4:1.
parrots - much larger brain relative to body mass. some mature at 3 and live to 30. ration would be 10:1.
humans - reach sexual maturity at 12 yrs. die around 82. ratio of 7:1 |
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Term
| animals who live longer evolved to have what characteristic? |
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Definition
| a greater learning capacity. The ability to learn became a selection factor for animals that deteriorate slower |
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Term
| why does senescence occur? |
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Definition
| no reason why we should deteriorate. some asexual animals never die. they get together and change genes to correct errors from mutations.
wearing out of anatomical parts: neural components, release of glococorticodes
if you accelerate sexual maturity, organism dies sooner |
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Term
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Definition
| a gene has multiple traits
a single gene could cause both maturation and senescence |
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Term
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Definition
| has to happen by chance before natural selection can occur |
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Term
| disposable soma (body) hypothesis |
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Definition
| not completely independent of pleiotropy women who have more children= should die younger. data doesn't suggest this.
one treatment works to live a long time: have a limited diet, just slightly more than starving. cut back by 30% |
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Term
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Definition
| 1.) degenerative: cancer, alzheimer's. diseases of the elderly w/ cumulative effects.
2.) bio-attack: fungal, bacterial, virus, tapeworm. can attack at any age. extension of prey/predator. predators are much smaller than prey (parasites). some species have learned to avoid areas of potential parasites, as well as others w/ diseases. |
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Term
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Definition
animals will self-medicate
parrots eat clay to detoxify their bodies
parasites are sensitive to sun. animals w/ skin infection will lie in sun.
capsakin: essence of hot/spicy food. all kill bacteria. mix spices w/ food to kill bacteria. people who live in warmer climates (more bacteria can grow) use more spices. |
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Term
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Definition
| bubonic plague - killed 1/3 of population
Americas: European disease killed most N.A. pop. Over 90% fell over 100yrs
Mound builders of Mississippi valley: Kansas to w. Georgia. disease killed millions.
Europe/Asia/Africa - greater chance for disease to develop through mutations. Eurasian's have strong immune systems |
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Term
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Definition
individual differences.
make comparisons across species - look for tasks that many species have.
personality - ind. diff. w/i a species.
traits - personality characteristic that is consisten w/i an individual and across situations
roles - affective behavioral attribute that changes from situation to situation
roles are learned, traits are not. traits are influenced by genes / environment
high degree of consistency w/ personality over development. 6 m. old is a good predictor of 6 yrs. old, which is a good predictor of 60 yrs. old.
bold/shy - very young children can be bold or shy. holds up throughout life. |
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Term
| factor analysis on human personality- BIG 5 |
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Definition
| OCEAN
Openness to experience (art, music, adventure, imagination, unusual ideas)
Conscientiousness (self-discipline, act dutifully, high achiever, planned behavior)
Extraversion (positive emotions, initiate interactions, seek out others)
Agreeableness (compassionate, cooperation, avoid agonistic behavior, opposite of aggressive)
Neuroticism (retain unpleasant emotions, be unhappy, angry, anxious, depressed) |
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Term
| how does the BIG 5 relate to nonhumans? |
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Definition
| Macaque Monkey
curiosity: similar to openness to experience
sociability: similar to extraversion
agreeableness
excitability
assertiveness
STRONG PARALLEL to humans. YAAAAY!
fucking animals. |
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