Term
|
Definition
| no effect on phenotype; but still has a new allele. Codon changes, amino acid stays the same |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wrong amino acid can, but need not, affect phenotype and there is a new allele. Codon changes, amino acid changes |
|
|
Term
| an example of missense mutation with devastating effects |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the mutation in sickle cell anemia |
|
Definition
| a thiamine becomes an adenine and changes amino acid from glutamic acid to valine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| early stop codon, very likely to influence phenotype |
|
|
Term
| why are nonsense genes so bad? |
|
Definition
| they change the entire amino acid sequence because it gets stopped at a different time and the protein is different. |
|
|
Term
| what are mutation rates typically estimated from? |
|
Definition
| loss of function mutations |
|
|
Term
| loss of function mutations |
|
Definition
| any mutation that inactivates a gene. |
|
|
Term
| why are mutation rates usually estimated from loss of function mutations? |
|
Definition
| easily identified, can calculate mutations/gene/generation |
|
|
Term
| what kid of systems are easy to use to calculate mutation rates? |
|
Definition
| ones with small genomes -> model systems |
|
|
Term
| what kid of effects do loss of function mutations have? |
|
Definition
| not quantitative traits, really big effects |
|
|
Term
| why aren't silent mutations taken into account for mutation rates? |
|
Definition
| hard to detect recessives and miss quantitative traits |
|
|
Term
| mutation rates vary by __________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when is there less mutations in an organism? relative |
|
Definition
| when the organism is smaller and therefore there are less cell divisions till maturity |
|
|
Term
| number of cell divisions prior to the formation of gametes determines... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is a second way to estimate mutation rates? |
|
Definition
| extrapolate to whole genomes, compare parent and offspring whole genomes |
|
|
Term
| what do you need to extrapolate whole genomes? |
|
Definition
| know the whole number of genes, so model organisms are good for this.... like stickleback <3 |
|
|
Term
| genome wide mutation rates in single-celled organisms |
|
Definition
| one cell division per generation, have remarkably similar mutation rates overall |
|
|
Term
| genome wide mutation rates in sexually reproducing eukaryotes |
|
Definition
| genome-wide mutation rates increase with lengthening generation time |
|
|
Term
| per cell division mutation rates are very similar across |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is more likely to have mutations? sperm in a 30 year old human male or a young fruit fly? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a loss of function mutation in plants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| compared mutation rates in annuals to that in long-lived mangroves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| seeds held on plant: produce leaves so can see before released and score normal or albino |
|
|
Term
| loss of function mutation in mangroves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| results of Klekowski and Godfrey |
|
Definition
| Frequency of albinism much higher in mangroves than annuals |
|
|
Term
| why is albinism more frequent in mangroves than annuals? |
|
Definition
| huge number of division of meristimatic cells before seeds are produced in long-lived plants like mangroves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| coastal, used to be found in Florida, lots of diversity |
|
|
Term
| interesting outcomes of mutation rates |
|
Definition
| male mutation rates higher than female, could explain influence of child bearing upon probability of breast cancer |
|
|
Term
| why are mutation rates higher in males? |
|
Definition
| higher number of cell divisions leading up to gametes |
|
|
Term
| why are women less likely to have breast cancer after they have babies? |
|
Definition
| less cell divisions in the breast |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell divisions harbor a mutation in multicellular organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creates a new allele, can affect phenotype, can be silent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| base substitution, base addition of deletion, insertion of mobile element |
|
|
Term
| insertions and deletions can cause... |
|
Definition
| serious reading frame shift and nonsense |
|
|
Term
| which is more serious? a insertion/deletion or a substitution? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| not as dramatic insertions/ deletion |
|
Definition
| take out or put in three basepairs... so the frame isn't shifted. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| discovered transposable elements, worked with corn, got nobel prize |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can disrupt gene function, can provide novelty |
|
|
Term
| "ultimate selfish DNA", parasitic DNA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mutations effect fitness unless |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of the fitness effects of mutations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 79 lines allowed to accumulate mutations in a benign environment -> declined steadily in lengevity and offspring production. Control lines, under high density and selection produced more fit individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 79 lines allowed to accumulate mutations in a benign environment -> declined steadily in lengevity and offspring production. Control lines, under high density and selection produced more fit individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of the cost of lost alleles due to selection |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the absence of selection deleterious mutations will accumulate and reduce population fitness -> there are lots of bad alleles out there just waiting to become more common |
|
|
Term
| DNA sequences randomly inserted in the genome |
|
Definition
| uber big effect, a lot bigger than the frameshift mutations |
|
|
Term
| Fitness effects of mutations E. Coli and yeast |
|
Definition
| cultured many offspring of each cell and measured growth rates of each descendent lineage relative to control then calculated selection coefficients as differences in growth rate relative to controls |
|
|
Term
| what did a majority of lineages in the E. Coli/ yeast experiment show? |
|
Definition
| depressed growth rates -> depressed fitness |
|
|
Term
| E. coli/ Yeast experiment results |
|
Definition
| many mutations are only mildly deleterious, effect of many insertions were slight |
|
|
Term
| what did a majority of lineages in the E. Coli/ yeast experiment show? |
|
Definition
| depressed growth rates -> depressed fitness |
|
|
Term
| E. coli/ Yeast experiment results |
|
Definition
| many mutations are only mildly deleterious, effect of many insertions were slight, all had a significant cumulative frequency of mutations except the control |
|
|
Term
| is there a selection on mutation rate? |
|
Definition
| selection would act upon the efficiency of DNA replication and repair... |
|
|
Term
| Variation on mutation rates exists in... |
|
Definition
| the rate at which variants of DNA polymerases replicate DNA and the efficiency of repair |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacterial cells with high mutation rates experience higher fitness than normal cells only in novel environments (not under normal lab rearing conditions) natural selection could act on mutation rates if mutation rates are genetically based |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| injected bacteria-free mice with equal numbers of E. coli from strains with high and low mutation rates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| strains with high mutation rates were favored initially, and as the E. coli adapted to their hosts lower mutation rates were favored |
|
|
Term
| example of selection acting on rate of mutation |
|
Definition
| mice injected with E. Coli... |
|
|
Term
| mutations rates in novel environments |
|
Definition
| high mutation rates favored |
|
|
Term
| mutation rates in populations that have become adapted to their environment |
|
Definition
| lower mutation rates are favored |
|
|
Term
| why are neutral mutations common? |
|
Definition
| they aren't selected against |
|
|
Term
| why are beneficial mutations rare? |
|
Definition
| not goal directed. can be weeded out by accident. |
|
|
Term
| types of mutations with significant evolutionary impact |
|
Definition
| point mutation, chromosome inversion, gene duplication, genome duplication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| base pair substitutions in DNA sequences |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| flipping of a chromosome segment, so order of genes along the chromosome changes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| duplication of a short stretch of DNA, creating an extra copy of the sequence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| addition of a complete set of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| mechanism of chromosome inversions |
|
Definition
| 2 double strand breaks in a chromosome, segment detaches, flips, and reanneals |
|
|
Term
| an inverted sequence in a chromosome inversion cannot |
|
Definition
| align properly with normal homolog and successful cross-over very rarely now occurs |
|
|
Term
| result of chromosome inversions |
|
Definition
| loci within inversions are inherited together as a supergene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 6 chromosomes, 5 polymorphic for at least one inversion. |
|
|
Term
| clinal variations in Drosophila |
|
Definition
| changes in frequency of inversion with change of latitude |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gradual change in phenotype of allele frequency as you move across a geographic area |
|
|
Term
| Est inversion in Drosophila |
|
Definition
| higher fitness at higher latitudes in the OLD WORLD |
|
|
Term
| Anthropogenic "Experiment" Part I, Drosophila |
|
Definition
| Released in Chile in 1978, spread in South America, same latitudinal changes as in the Old World, suggested similar responses to environmental selection |
|
|
Term
| Anthropogenic "Experiment" part II Drosophila |
|
Definition
| found in WA, same subset as the Chile release, spread in North America, produced parallel clinal variation |
|
|
Term
| Drosophila inversion results |
|
Definition
| inference: there is environmentally-mediated selection on these inversions |
|
|
Term
| Gene duplication mechanism |
|
Definition
| Homologues do not synapse properly during prophase I or Meiosis, one of the pair will be missing DNA and the other may have duplicates |
|
|
Term
| what happens when there is a gene duplication? |
|
Definition
| one copy can retain function while others evolve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| copies of genes can lose function through mutation accumulation |
|
|
Term
| duplicate genes can evolve new functions |
|
Definition
| give rise to new families of genes, each gene derived from a homologous ancestor, each gene has a different function |
|
|
Term
| gene duplication is a major source of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| comparison of mouse and human globins demonstrate.... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do mouse and human globins have high homology? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does comparison of globin genes within taxa demonstrate the importance of duplication? |
|
Definition
| duplication -> speciation, also it allowed embryos to function better |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an iron-binding heme group surrounded by four protein subunits, 3 from the alpha-like cluster and 2 from the beta-like cluster |
|
|
Term
| does embryonic and adult hemoglobin differ? |
|
Definition
| yes, embryos must have hemoglobin with higher oxygen affinity than Mom |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multiple copies of entire complement of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tetraploid (4) to octoploid (8) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tetraploid (4) to octoploid (8) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plants, nearly all ferns and half of angiosperms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| diploid gametes in plants |
|
Definition
| rate of 2/100,000 offspring. 2, 2n gametes lead to a 4n plant, rate similar to average point mutation |
|
|
Term
| diploid gametes in plants can lead to... |
|
Definition
| instant speciation in plants because 3n doesn't work? |
|
|
Term
| across populations within the Cook Inlet of Alaska |
|
Definition
| there is a broad-scale adaptive radiation of stickleback |
|
|
Term
| across females in populations |
|
Definition
| there is variation in egg size on which selection acts in stickleback |
|
|
Term
| fluctuation of the variation of egg size in stickleback over time |
|
Definition
| is the visible result of selection |
|
|
Term
| distribution of the variation of egg size in stickleback |
|
Definition
| roughly balances, has gotten bigger and smaller |
|
|
Term
| is there a lot of variation in egg size from female to female stickleback? |
|
Definition
| yes, about 12% CV, bell curve |
|
|
Term
| 15% increase in egg size over one year must be almost entirely due to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some measure of fitness (for the parent) is maximized |
|
|
Term
| life history determining questions |
|
Definition
| age/size at reproduction, reproductive effort, offspring size and number |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| usually has greater survival and growth potential than smaller offspring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| you have to make smaller eggs |
|
|
Term
| the ridge of high fitness (top of mountain range on graph |
|
Definition
| assumes that fry fitness is a linear function of egg size |
|
|
Term
| what does selection "see" with respect to offspring? |
|
Definition
| females produce eggs, not fry, eggs develop into fry, which compete for food |
|
|
Term
| in female stickleback what is selected upon? |
|
Definition
| egg size, and the fry are selected by size or competitive ability |
|
|
Term
| a difference in fish egg size corresponds to |
|
Definition
| a larger size difference in fry |
|
|
Term
| bigger fry can focus on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fitness function of fry is.... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in harsh environments than benign environments |
|
|
Term
| is the relationship between egg size and fry survival linear? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| potential selective agents on stickleback? |
|
Definition
| environmental productivity, physical environmental stressors, fluctuations in growing-season length, predator suites?, social stressors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| conditions required for HW equilibrium |
|
Definition
| random mating, no mutation, infinitely large population size, no differential reproductive success, no gene flow |
|
|
Term
| no genetic drift means... |
|
Definition
| infinitely large population size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement of individuals between populations -> causes gene flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement of alleles between populations, caused by migration |
|
|
Term
| migration rates vary due to... |
|
Definition
| taxonomic/ organismal differences, regions |
|
|
Term
| why migration rates vary due to taxonomic/ organismal differences |
|
Definition
| mobility, tendency to move, vulnerability to wind, effectiveness of barriers to movement |
|
|
Term
| why migration rates vary due to regions |
|
Definition
| habitat uniformity, number and size of barriers to dispersal, kinds of barriers to dispersal, prevailing winds/currents etc. |
|
|
Term
| impact of gene flow depends upon... |
|
Definition
| rate of gene flow, degree of difference of allele frequencies among populations between which gene flow occurs, size of receiving population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| very low rates of gene flow from the mainland may not be detectable on the island, high rates of gene flow will be detectable, gene flow from the island is unlikely to be detectable |
|
|
Term
| the larger the recipient population... |
|
Definition
| the less the effect of a given rate of gene flow |
|
|
Term
| gene flow can be viewed as a ___________ force |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if gene flow opposes selection... |
|
Definition
| adds maladaptive alleles to populations, opposes the effects of selection, makes population more similar than local selection would favor |
|
|
Term
| outcome of gene flow opposing selection |
|
Definition
| balance between strength of selection and amount of gene flow, genetic variation will be maintained in populations even though selection favors reduced variation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialize on fish as prey, live throughout greater lakes, bask on white limestone rocks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| more vulnerable to birds, get more banded snakes due to migration from mainland/ wooded areas. |
|
|
Term
| where are white snakes favored? |
|
Definition
| on islands with white rocks |
|
|
Term
| band snakes are most common... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| white snakes are most common... |
|
Definition
| farther from the mainland |
|
|
Term
| gene flow maintains variation... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| speciation is the process... |
|
Definition
| by which one group of interbreeding individuals evolves into two separate groups of interbreeding individuals |
|
|
Term
| after speciation the two groups... |
|
Definition
| now have separate evolutionary pathways and are reproductively isolated from one another |
|
|
Term
| types of species concepts |
|
Definition
| morphological species concept, phylogenetic species concept, biological species concept |
|
|
Term
| morphological species concept |
|
Definition
| species defined by degree of morphological similarity or difference |
|
|
Term
| when does the species concept work well? |
|
Definition
| at a descriptive level if applied by taxonomists that specialize in the group |
|
|
Term
| problem with morphological species concept |
|
Definition
| need not correspond to reproductive isolation or to genetic differences |
|
|
Term
| phylogenetic species concept |
|
Definition
| populations must have been isolated long enough for "diagnosable" traits (new, distinguishable genetically-based traits to have evolved) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| big differences in the same locale or similar enough to be different species |
|
|
Term
| biological species concept |
|
Definition
| all members of a biological species are able to interbreed, members of a biological species are reproductively isolated from all other organisms |
|
|
Term
| fundamental transition based on the biological species concept |
|
Definition
| species now will have independent evolutionary trajectories |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolve in the same geographic area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two new species with a geographic divide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "allopatric speciation" divergence occurs between isolated populations, allows for reproductive isolation to evolve between populations through differences in mutation, genetic drift and selection |
|
|
Term
| two general means of geographic isolation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| group of individuals move to a new geographic area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| geographic areas becomes split so the population becomes split |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dance and sing to each other, males fight over females, we keep destroying this species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| on the right, newer islands forming |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| island sinking with corals around it. happening to the old islands in HI |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genetic drift, natural selection, sexual selection |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| geographic distance a perfect predictor of of isolation coefficient |
|
|
Term
| isolation coefficient low |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is an example of genetic drift? |
|
Definition
| the salamander and genetic isolation |
|
|
Term
| example of natural selection |
|
Definition
| benthic and limnetic stickleback |
|
|
Term
| stickleback limnetic and benthic do or do not mate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| species pairs have hybridized in what lake? |
|
Definition
| Enos, development, introduction of predators, sad because the benthic was black and truly unique |
|
|
Term
| how is it likely that species paris in stickleback evolved? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| second invasion gives rise to limnetics, benthic living is better so already taken. ecological specialization and character displacement |
|
|
Term
| are new species pairs of stickleback still being found? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the stickleback species pairs are considered what kind of morphology? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| character displacement graph |
|
Definition
| two bell curves, peaks are different because most similar individuals suffer a competitive disadvantage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| males compete for females: phenotypes that cause males to win have highest fitness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| females prefer males phenotypes. these phenotypes have highest fitness |
|
|
Term
| sexual selection can promote... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of intrasexual selection |
|
Definition
| male D. heteroneura fight with their big heads for females |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| based on female choice only... not as much selection as the males fighting |
|
|
Term
| what happens when two isolated populations come into contact? |
|
Definition
| biological species or hybridization leading to one population (loss of diversity) or hybridization in which hybrids have low fitness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hybrids have low fitness, selection acts against individuals that fail to select mates from their populations of origin and produce hybrid offspring, favors individuals with genetically-based tendencies to mate with members of their population of origin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the only case in which selection can favor reproductive isolation, individuals that select their own type have highest fitness, and are favored. when reproductive isolation is incomplete, can favor speciation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| take fruit flies from different populations/species from locations where they are found in allopatry and sympatry. evaluate effect of allopatry/ sympatry on degree of reproduction isolation |
|
|
Term
| allopatric taxa are more reinforced than... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can speciation occur without a barrier to gene flow? |
|
Definition
| possibly, in unusual circumstances |
|
|
Term
| prezygotic limitations in flies |
|
Definition
| fly species pair, one lays in hawthorne and one lays in apples |
|
|
Term
| different alleles in fruit flies |
|
Definition
| alternative allele favored in different laying area, divergence even if they can interbreed |
|
|
Term
| ancestry of stickleback species pairs |
|
Definition
| limnetic form is closer to oceanic form than benthic form |
|
|
Term
| is there evidence for some gene flow between species pairs? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lake victoria and the cichlids |
|
Definition
| nile perch introduced and ate all the cichlids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, young (<23,000 years), this and a set of nearby lakes house the Nicaraguan (and Costa Rican) Midas cichlid species complex |
|
|
Term
| requirements for demonstrating sympatric speciation |
|
Definition
| sympatry of closest sister species, genetic evidence of reproductive isolation, monophyly, allopatric speciation geographically unlikely |
|
|
Term
| yellow fish thought to evolve from |
|
Definition
| other cichlids in the same area |
|
|
Term
| how do you prove genetic isolation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| like the spadefoot tadpoles eating different things and having different mouth parts dependent on what they have available to eat |
|
|
