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Definition
| a statement the advocate believes or is in the process of evaluating |
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| a statement advanced for the purpose of establishing a claim |
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| claim that has been reached by a process of reasoning |
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| a conclusion drawn on the basis of reasons |
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| statements that report, describe, predict, or make causal claims |
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| claim that can potentially be verified as either true or false |
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| making claims about the future |
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| statements that advance judgments about morality, beauty, merit, or wisdom |
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| the standards on which a value judgement is based |
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| statements that urge that an action be taken or discontinued |
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| personal qualities that assist us in making ethically good choices |
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| perspectives that rely on the essential values of a political system for their criteria of ethical assessment |
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| Human nature perspectives |
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| perspectives that develop around one or more essential qualities of human nature |
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| perspectives that elevate efforts to preserve the two-sidedness of public discourse |
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| perspectives that identify ethical considerations or principles inherent to each unique communication setting |
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| a commitment to not willingly mislead, and generally a regard for what is or what we take to be true |
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| willingness to accept the risks associated with open advocacy of one's position, even when that position is unpopular or dangerous |
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| a willingness to engage the argumentative process so that a rational resolution of the issues can be achieved |
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| a regard for others as reasoning persons |
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| the spaces, venues, and relationships in which arguments are made and heard |
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| a willingness to create and preserve space for argumentation to occur, cultivate relationships in which it occurs, and allow the argumentative process to continue as long as necessary to ensure reasonable resolution of issues |
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| the availability of evidence for examination |
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| a reputation for accuracy and reliability |
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| state the source's credentials or give reasons for its credibility |
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| the requirement that evidence must not contradict itself |
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| the requirement that evidence must not be sharply at odds with either the majority of evidence from other sources or with the best evidence from other sources. |
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| the requirement that the evidence must be up-to-date and not superseded by more timely evidence |
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| whether the evidence advanced has any bearing on the argument's conclusion |
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| whether the evidence presented, when taken together, is sufficient to support its claim |
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| numerical evidence from records, studies, reports, surveys, polls, and the like |
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| selecting and observing members of a group or population who are taken to be representative of the rest of the group |
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| Generalizations from a sample |
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| claims that take, as their evidence, observation of a sample drawn from a population, and advance a general conclusion about members of the population not directly observed |
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| the members of a group actually observed or consulted |
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| the number of members in the sample |
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| what was discovered about members of the sample |
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| the group or class to which the generalization is meant to apply |
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| a quality projected from the sample to the population |
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| extent of the generalization |
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| the portion of the population that is said to exhibit the property |
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| (of a finding) accurately reflects the presence of the quality in the entire population |
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| relevant differences among members in a population - the degree to which members of a population vary in ways that may be relevant to the quality being tested in a generalization |
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| fallacy of hasty generalization |
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| a generalization based on a sample that is too small to support it |
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| the size of a sample relative to the total number of members in the population |
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| a sample that adequately reflects the various groups and variations within the population |
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| a sample in which every member of a given population had an equal chance of being selected for the sample |
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| the arithmetical average = sum÷number of figures in set |
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| a statement that assumes that what is true of the population now will also be true of it in the future |
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| an argument built around an "if-then" statement or equivalent |
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| the if-then statement in a conditional argument |
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| the reasons in the conditional argument, as well as in the enumerative and categorical arguments |
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| The "if" clause in a conditional statement |
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| The "then" clause in a conditional statement |
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| "mode that affirms" - Affirming the antecedent creates a valid conditional argument |
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| "mode that denies" - Denying the consequent creates a valid conditional argument |
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| a condition that will bring about another event |
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| a condition without which another event cannot occur |
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| an argument that strings together two or more conditional statements to predict a remote result from a first step |
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| An argument from direction urging that the first step in a progression not be taken |
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| an argument that sets out alternative explanations or options and then follows a process of elimination |
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| an argument that presents limited options: two enumerated alternatives, or disjuncts, marked by an "either/or" statement |
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| two alternatives that might be true at the same time |
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| two alternatives that cannot be true at the same time |
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| a disjunctive argument that forces a choice between limited and undesirable options |
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| a dilemma argument that uses artificially limited options to mislead an audience |
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| to advance a meaning for a word or to classify an object, person, or act |
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| a definition that all parties to a debate agree upon, or that states a generally accepted or agreed upon meaning |
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| a definition employed strategically to categorize an object or event so as to support a particular conclusion to an argument |
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| less objectionable and often less accurate terms exchanged for harsh, condemning, or emotionally charged terms |
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| placement of an object, person, or idea under a new heading that facilitates defense or accusatin |
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| condemning or commending a person, group, idea, or institution by use of a suggestive name or term rather than through presenting reasons |
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| a definition of a term by reference only to factors inherent in or strongly implied by the definition itself |
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| distinction without a difference |
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| a definition that suggests that a category exists, without adequately explaining how objects in this category differ from objects in similar categories |
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| the meaning of a term in everyday language |
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| representative example of the term or category in question; a typical member that defines the entire category |
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| the meaning of a word or phrase in its original context, or what the initial definer of a term meant by it |
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| a comparison of something with which we are familiar to something with which we are less familiar, or about which we have some question. |
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| a direct comparison between two allegedly similar items or cases |
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| a familiar or widely established instance that is used as the basis for the argument |
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| an instance in the argument about which a claim is being advanced |
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| "from that which is stronger" - a literal analogy that asserts that what is true of its evidence case is even more likely or even less likely to be true of its conclusion case |
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| a literal analogy that insists on similar treatment for people, ideas, or institutions in similar circumstances |
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| the idea or value that similar cases should be treated similarly |
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| the claim that an exception should be made to the rule that similar cases should be treated similarly |
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| a basis for a series of undesirable exceptions for similar cases |
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| metaphor (figurative analogy) |
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Definition
| a comparison between things that are not of the same type, that come from different realms of experience |
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| the familiar relationship pair that is used as support for the conclusion |
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| the relationship being urged in connection with the conclusion |
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| an argument that draws a conclusion about an entire class of objects or events based on a particular instance or a limited number of cases, rather than about a single member of a group |
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| the use of one object to represent another associated object, or of a single attribute to represent a complex object |
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| engaging the audience's emotions for the purpose of persuasion |
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| Do the components in this story create a meaningful and consistent whole? |
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| Does this story reflect what I know to be true about life experiences and human nature? |
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| an argument that recommends or discourages a course of action on the basis of its practical consequences |
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| arguing comparative advantages |
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Definition
| arguing that an alternative course of action carries greater advantages than the proposed plan does |
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| an argument that affirms that we should abide by values, principles, and duties, and avoid actions that violate the same |
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| an argument that affirms numerical considerations as an index of significance |
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| an argument that expresses a preference for the unique, the beautiful, the rare, or the unusual |
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| falsely assuming that a conclusion can be reached on the basis of the absence of evidence |
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| a false assumption that qualitative changes along a line of progression do not occur if we cannot agree about exactly where such changes occur |
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| a fallacy that assumes that a debatable question can be treated as already answered a particular way |
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Definition
| an intentional effort to attack a person rather than an argument by damaging the opponent's character or reputation or by engaging in name-calling and labeling |
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Definition
| dismissing an individual as unqualified to speak on a topic based on some accident of circumstance |
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| falsely reasoning that someone who is guilty of an offense has no right to instruct others not to do something similar |
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| appealing to the audience and its interests rather than to the merits of the argument |
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| the obligation to restate an opponent's argument so as to give it a strong interpretation |
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| failure to observe the rule of charity (the obligation to restate an opponent's argument so as to give it a strong interpretation) |
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| a fallacy that focuses attention on minor or inconsequential points to draw attention away from important ones |
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| the fallacy of creating a false sense of meaning by failing to fully describe a proposal or a crucial component in an opponent's case |
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| recognized methods of expressing a meaning indirectly |
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| the strategy of making a claim about an issue by stating that you will not bring up that issue or that the matter is insignificant |
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Definition
| promoting a false interpretation by presenting only some of the relevant evidence in a case, while intentionally excluding other evidence that would contradict the suggested interpretation |
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| the fallacy that creates a false impression by ordering, associating, or grouping items of evidence in a misleading way |
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Definition
| a persuasive strategy directed to the audience's emotions, sense of humor, or deeply held loyalties and commitments |
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| an appeal that urges compliance with the directive of a person, group, or document possessing power |
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| the intentional decision to disobey a law or directive of a government authority for moral reasons |
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| engaging the audience's emotions for the purpose of pursuading |
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| "reduction to absurdity" - an appeal that asks an audience to recognize an idea as either self-contradictory or as so unreasonable as to be absurd |
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Definition
| seeking an accurate sense of the nature of the audience so you can adapt your arguments to that audience |
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| an effort to create a picture of the audience that focuses on descriptive information such as age, race, gender, and economic status |
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Definition
| the effort to ascertain an audience's beliefs, values, and other moral commitments |
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Definition
| audience analysis aimed at discovering audience attitudes toward your topic and perhaps toward you as an advocate |
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