A body that functions in two or more states, or that is set up to promote cooperation among states, based on the principles of voluntary cooperation, communal management and shared interest.

1. voluntary cooperation
2. communal management
3. shared interest
4. minimal autonomy (depends on MS)

A theory combining elements of neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism, arguing that intergovernmental bargains are driven by pressure coming from the domestic level.

associated with Andrew Moravcsik

• 1951 Treaty of Paris (founding of ECSC)
• 1957 Treaty of Rome (core goal single european market)
• 1992 Treaty of Maastricht (Treaty on EU)

1. territory: fixed and populated territory
2. sovereignty: monopoly of legal and political power
3. independence: not under jurisdiction, control of other state
4. legitimacy: authority recognized by inhabitants and other governments

• is the state dying?
• are markets stronger than states?
• does a relative decline of the state happen?

international state system principally connected to the Westphalinan system (1648), emergence of the state 

Yes

• states create avoidable tensions and divisions
• global marketplace has increased power for multinational companies, states nowadays have less power
• to achieve something, states have place shared interests above state interests, independence of action diminishes
• states are threatened by national minorities

No

• reach and power of wealthy states have increased, control more public programmes and information about citizens
• IO complement states rather than replacing them
• challenges to state sovereignty today are not stronger than earlier
• militaries remain of defining quality
• citizens mainly identify with states

1. free trade area (removing internal barriers to trade, maintaining external barriers)
2. single market (removal of barriers to the free movement of people, money, goods and services)
3. monetary union (tying smaller currencies to a larger one (south africa) or single currency (Eur)
4. political union (so far theory, as too controversial)

reasons for integration vary (usually starting with economic), but today most countries are part of a RIA 

1. economic equality and compatibility
2. complementation among elites
3. presence of interest groups
4. capacity to respond to political decisions

EU ranks high in all 4

1. international organization (beyond that scope)
2. regional integration association (IR approcach)
3. sui generis (generally not unique enough)
4. political system in its own right
5. combination of 1-4

1986 SEA: EU more powerful than any other IO

1-2 represent intergovernmentalism

1. system with two or more levels of government
2. autonomous power and responsibilities

>contrary to unitary system

>US as benchmark

>UK lacks regional assembly

>EU could be described as very weak federalism

1. system of states with joint institutions
2. states reserve powers for themselves

>looser than federation, "union of states"

>does not exist today

>EU could be confederation, Council and European Council confederate in nature 

• 16th - 17th century: almost constant warfare
• 1648: Peace of Westphalia (Emergence of modern state system, mismatch between state and nation)
• 1803-1805 Napoleonic Wars
• 1815 Congress of Vienna 
• Afterwards peace, but rising nationalism
• 1919 Great War, Treaty of Versailles 

After WWI first attempts at cooperation, french-german rivalry as threat to peace

French + UK win but loose int'l power

1. new world order with USSR and USA
2. economic reconstruction of Europe
3. Europe possible nuclear battlefield
4. nationalism needed to be channeled

• 1944 Bretton Woods System (convertibility of currencies, free trade, non discrimmination, stable exchange rates)
• Creation of IMF and GATT
• 1947 Truman Doctrine
• 1948 Brussels Treaty (military support through Western Union, result Berlin-Blockade)
• 1948 creation of Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) on initiative of USA (first permanent organization for cooperation in Europe, rearranged 1960 into OECD) 
• 1948 Congress of Europe in The Hague (European Movement, set up of Council of Europe, which draftes European Convention on Human Rights)
• 1951 Marshall Plan (actual influence contested, but huge political sign)
• 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), mutual protection, first ever peacetime integrated military command)

9th May 1950

• to a certain extent to exert control over GER
• France gace up some authority / sovereignty, Italy and Benelux joined
• first time european gov'ts transferred authority to a supranational institution
• break down of coal and steel cartels
• 18 April 1951 Treaty of Paris, European Coal and Steel Community
• common market for coal and steel
• no import or export duties
• no discrimminatory measures

merged with EEC and Euratom in 1965, also instrumental because some institutions date back to ECSC

1. High Authority (nine members from MS - remove barriers to the free movement of coal and steel)
2. Special Council of Ministers (relevant gov't minister - make decisions on proposals from high authority)
3. Common Assembly (78 members chosen by national legilsature - advisory role)
4. Court of Justice (seven judges - settle conflicts between states and ruled on legality of High Authority)

Attempt to create a politial community to oversee ECSC and the European Defence Community, but which collapsed with the demise of the EDC, proposed 1952

>as result Jean Monnet resigned from the presidency of High Authority

do not mix up with European Political Cooperation (1970-1993) which was precursor of CFSP

Especially turning point for Britain. Britain, France and Israel created a pretext to invade Egypt to reverse the nationalisation of th Suez Canal. Due to crackdown if USSR in Hungary, USA was not able to criticize USSR without criticizing Britain, France and Israel. USA demanded removal of Britain, France and Israel. 

Britain realised that it could not play independent role on the world stage.

25 March 1957

creation of

1. European Economic Community (EEC) - single market, free flow of
1. money
2. goods
3. people (restrictions on workers still in place)
4. services
2. European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom - peaceful use of nuclear energy)

1. Creating single market within 12 years
2. elimination of custom duties between members and creating a common external tariff
3. common policy on agriculture, trade, transport and competition
4. creation of European Social Fund and European Investment Bank

same institutional framework as ECSC

initially little authority of institutions, governments take most decisions

• quotas brought down
• 1968 agreement on common external tariff and customs union > surge in trade follows
• non-tariff barriers remain (mainly product standards)
• little progress on common transport policy

agreed in 1958

• reflecting french interest to manage overproduction
• single market with guaranteed prices
• encouraging overproduction and benefitting large scale farmers

Six MS workes as one in international tade negotiations

• 1963 Yaoundé convention
• 1967 Kennedy round of GATT talks

dispute in 1965 over the relative powers of the commission, spurred by

• attempts by Walter Hallstein to strengthen COM + propose own resources for EEC
• scheduled introduction of qualified majority vote (meaning one country could be overruled)
• disagreement on CAP between FR + 5 other MS

de Gaulle did not appear to council meetings, so no vote could be taken. Resolved January 1966 with Luxembourg compromise according to which essentially each MS could veto a decision > slowing down of integration followed, strengthened national governments

1. Commission (nine members from MS, charged with initiating policy and implementation, less power than HA)
2. Council of Ministers (gov't ministers, sharing 17 votes, some unanimous, other simple majority, others qulified majority - make decisions on proposal by COM)
3. Parliamentary Assembly (142 appointed members, elected since 1979 - question or censure commission but little legislative authority)
4. Court of Justice (seven judges - interpreting treaties and ensuring that institutions and MS fulfill their obligations)

growing criticism of US security policy

1969 Ostpolitik by Willy Brandt

Enlargement considered vital to ensure:

1. regional peace
2. economic prosperity

Eastern Europe and Scandinavia remain excluded, Britain most notable exclusion (de Gaulle vetoes inclusion in 1963 and again 1967)

• January 1973 Britain, Denmark and Ireland join (after two vetoes on british entry by de Gaulle due to CAP) > 9 members
• 1981 Greece joins
• 1986 Spain and Portugal join > 12 members

latter three because inclusion into NATO sought by EEC

• integration of poorer countries
• more weight on worldwide scale
• more complicated decision making
• redistribution of EEC spending

deepening of integration followed, rather than widening

• 1979 European Monetary System (exchange rate stability)
• 1986 Single European Act
• 1992 Maastricht Treaty 

General diminished confidence in US and the $ (Vietnam War, termination of Bretton Woods)

• based on European Currency Unit (Exchange Rate Mechanism ECM)
• basked of national currencies, weighted according to respective importance
• keeping currency fluctuations within a limit of 2.5% of ECU, 6% for Italy
• serious difficulty to attain goals, britain withdrew 1992 (black wednesday)

1. MS increasingly dependent on intra EC trade
2. reduced growth and worsening of unemployment
3. EMS already started
4. European business favoured single market
5. citizens not particularly aware
6. principally relaunch of already set policies

> Lord Cockfield COM report with ca. 300 proposals to create a truly open market

> approved by referendums in DK + IRL

growing concerns over diminished competitiveness (eurosclerosis)

Feb. 1986 SEA (mainly economic goals), came into force 1987, first major amendment of treaties, key: establish single market until 31.12.1992 ("relaunch")

1. cooperation procedure introduced for EP(first real power for EP)
2. QMV for more policy fields (departure from unanimity, which made actions difficult)
3. legal status for HOG meetings within European Council and Community Foreign Policy Coordination
4. New power for Court of Justice, Court of First instance created
5. More powers for European Parliament relative to Council of Ministers
6. Many internal and passport controls lifted
7. COM received more responsibility in environmental policy, R&D and regional policy
8. Banks and companies were allowed to offer products throughout the community
9. introduction of cohesion policy (European Regional Development Fund, European Social Fund)

Fast track agreement to set-up a border-free Europe signed in 1985 by five MS, expanded to 28

France, West-Germany and Benelux considered SEA insufficient. Incorporated into treaty of Amsterdam 1997.

Example of Europe a la carte

May 1989: rigged elections in eastern germany, east-germans fled via hungary to austria, mass protests in Berlin, 3 October 1990 reunification

November 1989 velvet revoulution in czechoslovakia, tensions between forced living together of the two nations, separation in velvet divorce 1993

1989 Ceaucescu was overthrown in Romania (culmination of years of suppresion)

Democracy also came to Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova and Ukraine

Gulf war (August 1990) showed that community did not have any capacity to act

June 1991 break-up of Yugoslavia after death of Josep Broz Tito in 1981 and declarations of independence of Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia 

both events showed that Community lacked international political presence

process by which Community foreign ministers met on a regular basis with the goal of agreeing common foreign policy positions, while it offered important lessons it did not bring policies into convergence.

European Council, formalized in 1974 was more substantial

1. as of July 1990 free use of ECU, increased cooperation between central banks
2. new independence for national central banks and increased coordination of monetary policies, establishment of a European Monetary Institute (EMI as precursor of ECB)
3. as of January 1997 single monetary policy under the control of the European System of Central Banks, introducing of single currency and fixing of exchange rates

1992, introduced three pillar structure, consisting of

1. renamed European Community
2. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)
3. Justice and home affairs

established

1. new powers to the EP (codecision introduced), formation of Committee of Regions, QMV extended again
2. new responibilities for consumer protection, industrial policy, education, social policy, more cooperation on immigration
3. most regional funds set aside for poorer MS
4. new rights for citizens and ambiguous "citizenship"

• creating European Union
• commitment to single currency (monetary union)
• commitment to common foreign policy

more political in nature, changed course of EU beyond economic integration

first treaty to be rejected in national referendum (by Denmark)

The Treaty establishes Community policies in six new areas:

• trans-European networks;
• industrial policy;
• consumer protection;
• education and vocational training;
• youth;
• culture.

Turkey (1987), Austria (1989), Malta, Cyprus (both 1990), Sweden (1991), Finland, Norway and Switzerland (all 1992) applied

creation of European Economic Area (EEA), terms of SEA would be extended to EFTA members, which in turn accepted its rules, yet without full formal membership

talks for full membership opened during Copenhagen European Council 

> wealthier member needed to take over burden of new accession by eastern european members

Drawn up fo accession of new MS, prospective MS should 

1. be democratic
2. have functioning free markets
3. be able to adopt the acquis communitaire

body of treaties, laws and regulations adopted by the EU, most commonly used for indicating the obligations a prospective MS has to fulfill.

is divided into specific chapters, temporary derrogation allowed, permanent derrogation not.

• 1990 application of Cyprus and Malta
• 1994 application of Poland and Hungary
• 1995 application of Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia
• January 1995 Austria, Finland and Sweden join

• euroscepticism: doubts about direction being taken
• democratic deficit: ability of EU citizens to influence work in institutions

>low turnout in EP elections

>shift from gov't, elite driven integration

1997 (no major changes)

• confirmation of CFSP
• responsibilities extended to health and consumer protection
• Schengen integrated into treaties
• enhanced cooperation established
• EP powers expanded, power of approval over COM members

2001 (minor changes)

• structural changes in COM
• changes in QMV 

surprisingly rejected in Ireland but approved in 2nd vote

some countries experienced difficulties meeting the convergence criteria, euro introduction postponed from 1997 > 1999

introduction of additional loopholes to soften criteria

joining of Greece controversial 

1998 European Monetary Institute is replaced by European Central Bank

Standards that EU MS have to flulfill before entering the Euro:

1. budget deficit: less than 3% of GDP
2. public debt: less than 60% of GDP
3. inflation: within 1.5% of the average of the three countries with the lowest inflation
4. interest rate: within 2% of the average of the three countries with the lowes interest rate
5. exchange rate: kept within ERM margin for two years

1999 as electronic currency

2002 with coins and banknotes

first common currency since the roman empire

2004: 8 new MS gained membership:

1. Estonia
2. Latvia
3. Lithuania
4. Poland
5. Czech Republic
6. Slovakia
7. Hungary
8. Slovenia

1. Croatia (approved will join 1.07.2013)
2. Iceland
3. Macedonia
4. Montenegro
5. Turkey

1. Albania
2. Serbia
3. Bosnia
4. Kosovo

2002-2003

series of meeting held to draft a constitutution for the EU ("Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe)

• sought to combine all treaties
• end process of treaty amendments

received negative vote in France and Netherlands without any opportunity for renegotiation

2007 (under german presidency, almost same content as constitutional treaty)

• new president of European Council
• High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, backed by EEAS
• Abolition of pillar system and EC
• Equal powers to EP and council
• Recognition of charter of fundamental rights
• more powers for EU in energy policy, public health, climate change, crime and terror
• new formula for QMV from 2014
• 55% of MS
• representing 65% of population
• 4 MS blocking minority
• expansion of QMV
• single legal personality for EU
• recognition of freedom of MS to leave EU

rejected in Ireland but accepted after renegotiation and 2nd vote

1. listing of general goals and values of a state
2. outline of power and responsibilities of governing bodies
3. outline of procedures of electing or appointing government and th limits of their power
4. listing of rights of citizens
5. steps needed to change or amend the constitution

1. stable, intended to be durable
2. one or a small number of documents
3. superios, invalidates conflicting law
4. justiciable, superiority can be enforced
5. entrenchend, amendment more difficult than regular law
6. relies on common ideological principles

1. Treaty articles
2. EU law
3. Judgements of CJ
4. Charter of Fundamental Rights
5. European Convention of Human Rights (EU not signatory)

drawn up 1950 by Council of Europe, applies to all member states of the Council of Europe

citizens can invoke European Court of Human Rights

Art. 3 TFEU

1. competition
2. customs
3. fisheries convention
4. trade, common commercial policy
5. monetary policy (for euro members)

Art. 5 TEU

• conferral: EU can only act if MS give authority to achieve certain goals in treaties, if issue is not specifically liste = MS
• subsidiarity: if no exclusive competence is given, EU can only act if measure cannot be better taken by MS
• proportionality: EU should not go beyond action needed to achieve an objective in the treaties

Art. 3-6, but not coherently listed, important:

1. agriculture
2. external relation
3. competition
4. institutional and staff matters
5. internal market

authority in most areas is divided

1. 1951 Treaty of Paris creating ECSC, expired 2002
2. 1957 Treaty of Rome, created EEC and Euratom
3. 1967 Treaty of Brussels (merger treaty) created single institutional structure for all three communities)
4. 1970 First Budget Treaty
5. 1975 Second Budget Treaty
6. 1985 and 1990 Schengen Agreement 
7. 1986 Single European Act, completing of internal market, expansion of Community powers
8. 1992 Treaty on European Union (Maastricht), economic and monetary union, expanded policy responsibilities, introduced three pillar structure
9. 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam, expanded policy, organizational changes
10. 2001 Treaty of Nice, resolved institutional problem that were not solved by Amsterdam
11. 2004 Treaty on European Constitution (failed), would have repealed, replaced and consolidated all existing treaties
12. 2007 Treaty of Lisbon, essentially introduced all of constitutional treaties issues without being a constitution