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performers; art of argumentation
- wisdom = cleverness |
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| thinking of what's real & what's not |
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| theory of knowledge; How you know what you know |
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| Plato's Republic: Thrasymachus |
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- Is it always better to be "just" than unjust?
- What is "justice"?
- "Might is Right"
- Grand injustice = Greatness
Successfully unjust people will always be better off than someone trying to be fair.
(Ring of Gyges - background to argument) |
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| Plato's Republic: Socrates Response |
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All actions aim at an end.
- Allegory of the Line (metaphysical claim)
- Concrete objects > Matter; use of our senses i.e. desk (Body)
- Abstract universals > Ideals; understanding; i.e. blue (Soul)
- Allegory of the Cave: Virtue = Knowledge
- The Good = The True = The Beautiful; infinite scope
- Evil is a lack of "good;" product of our material needs
- Realism vs. Nominalism |
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| the goals, purpose, intent, end |
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| knowledge prior to experience |
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| knowledge as a result of experience, after |
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| 3 Types of Life (According to Aristotle) |
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1. Pleasure Seeking
2. Political/Community focused
3. Contemplative |
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i.e.
Cowardice (Deficiency) - Bravery (Good) - Rashness (Escess) |
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| happiness, well-being, flourishing |
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- product of habit, voluntary acts
- virtuous people take pleasure from doing virtuous acts
- threshold of goods needed for happiness
- we should seek $, honor, and pleasure b/c they make it easier to be virtuous
- No pain No gain is OK but Pain in Vain is Bad
- Need freedom (liberty) & resources to develop virtue
- Deal with anger in a healthy way |
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| incontinence; lack of mastery (virtue) |
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1. Impetuosity - acting without thinking; no reasoning
2. Weakness - thinking but still messing up |
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Structured argument; an argument is valid when the premises used are true
- If the argument is true, then the conclusion is true
i.e. all humans are mortal, Socrates is human, therefore Socrates is mortal
i.e. you ought to eat healthy food |
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| i.e. chocolate cake is good |
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- Pleasure
- Usefulness
- Virtue
"friend" becomes part of self; i.e. a parent's joy with child's accomplishments |
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| studying ethics in terms of cause & effect; an act or rule; predicting future |
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| Branches of Consequentialism |
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- Utilitarianism - based on pain & pleasure
- Preference based - people tend to know what they want |
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(Duty, core principles, morally binding)
- Kant - Respect
- Ross
- Non-consequentialism |
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| anything that prevents pain, promotes pleasure |
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only focuses on 2 types of consequences:
- amount of pleasure
- amount of pain
- Bentham & Mill |
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- virtuous choice will always be most pleasurable, if not right away then eventually
- Utility doesn't need to be explained, it just "is"
\> Like geometry & a triangle, it just is what it is
- wanted to provide a rational basis for identifying & justifying widespread reforms
- Single moral standard = principle of utility |
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defines the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, rule, principle, or policy in terms of the balance in each case of good or bad Consequences
- Any act or institution is good if and only if it tends to produce the greatest amount of happiness |
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- Fundamental
- Uncontestable
- No other motive as determinative
- Quantity, Not quality
(Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Propinquity, Fecundity, Purity, Extent) |
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| 3 Rivals to Utilitarianism |
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1. Asceticism - avoid pleasure, b/c the pursuit of pleasure can cause pain. i.e. using drugs leads to addiction & pain/problems
2. Theological Objection - "Divine Command Theory of Ethics" - we know what's right/wrong b/c we know what God wants
i.e. murder is wrong b/c God says so
3. Sympathy / Antipathy - (Hume) Emotivism - "Hurray! Boo!"
- moral passions; we don't like stealing, therefore we don't do it
(Based on emotional response instead of consequences) |
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- Mental pleasures are of a higher quality
- Known by experience
- Life of the mind is most important; ever-lasting; more quality than physical pleasures
- It is better to be SOcrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied (Quality)
- Egoism - lacks mental stimulation; fewer mental pleasures
- We need mental pleasures to move from individualistic pleasure-seeking to linking the whole, pleasure received by many people |
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| Econ/Pol; Edu/Culture (Mill) |
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Ought to link self to the whole
- self promotion can promote others/society
- opposite of egoism, "I" > "We" |
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| based on each moment; Maximizes pleasure/minimizing pain |
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| based on generally followed rules |
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(Valentyne)
turning the rule into something that isn't moral |
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| a.k.a. Act Utilitarianism; maximize Pleasure, minimize Pain |
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| Multiple-rule Utilitarianism |
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| a.k.a. Rule Utilitarianism |
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(vs. Perfectionist)
- i.e. Smoking; caffeine addiction
- what we want to do |
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(vs. Preference)
- what maximizes pleasure, minimizes pain
- Not necessarily someone's preference
(i.e. people can have a preference to steal but that isn't the best >> Not stealing is Perfectionist) |
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| Objections to Consequentialism |
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- Quantifiability - How? Can't be done.
- Interpersonal Comparisons
- Insensitivity to individuals |
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| Maximizing vs. Satisficing (Conequentialism) |
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| Satisficing sets up a threshold; maximizing is doing all you can to get more/the most |
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| Constrained (Consequentialism) |
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| there are some things we just don't do |
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- What do I do?
- Not always a promoter of happiness; our ability to reason is valuable in and of itself |
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| reasons vs. Reason (Kant) |
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(Consequentialism vs. Non-consequentialism)
- the pursuit of happiness is different from morality |
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(Kant)
- Skill - tested on efficiency
- Prudence - |
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| Categorical Imperative(s) |
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(Kant)
- applies at all times, all places
- Kant believes there is only 1. |
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| Kant's idea of "Law of Nature" |
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Maxims
- Act only on that maxim you could also will as a universal law. |
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1. State the Maxim
2. Universalize the Maxim
3. Ask if it's possible?
4. Imagine such a world
5. Is it desirable? |
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| Kant's Principle of Humanity |
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| ACt such that you treat all persons (including yourself) as an end-in-itself and never as a mere means (not to be used) |
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| 4 Examples of Principle of Humanity |
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1. Suicide
2. Loans - (with no intention to pay back)
(Perfect duties - can be fulfilled)
3. Culture - duty to develop your talents
4. Charity
(Imperfect duties) |
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| self-control is attainable if you are moral |
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external causes pull you around
- Utilitarianistic |
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the only thing that is good in and of itself
(Good intentioned >> value reason) |
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