Term
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Definition
breakdown of molecules
release of energy |
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Term
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Definition
building of molecules
energy investment |
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Term
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Definition
| removal of electrons (often in the form of H atom) |
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Term
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Definition
gain of electrons
net loss of charge |
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Term
| Electron carrier molecules (2 types) |
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Definition
| NAH+ and FAD (become NADH and FADH2) |
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Term
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Definition
| All chemical reactions within a living organism |
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Term
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Definition
| energy needed to start a reaction. This energy investment is the reason for slow reaction rate. |
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Term
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Definition
| 3D structure of enzyme makes active site that only specific substrates can bind to. |
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Term
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Definition
| non-protein portion that enables substrate to bind to the enzyme. |
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Term
| What is the role of ATP in the cell? |
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Definition
| energy bridge between catabolic and anabolic reactions- redox |
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Term
| What are the three parts of ATP? |
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Definition
| pentose sugar, phosphate groups, and adenosine base |
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Term
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Definition
| redox reaction where the energy released in the transfer of electrons (oxidation) from one compound to another is stored in the bonds of phosphates creating ATP |
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Term
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Definition
carbohydrates
fats
proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| complete breakdown of carbs- max ATP |
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Term
| What defines if you have aerobic or anaerobic respiration? |
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Definition
| presence or absence of final electron acceptor |
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Term
| Where does prokaryote carbohydrate catabolism (respiration) occur? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where does eukaryote carbohydrate catabolism occur? |
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Definition
| Partially in cyctoplasm (glycolysis) and the rest in the mitochondria. |
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Term
| What are the two steps in glycolysis? (give steps and their investments or byproducts) |
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Definition
Energy investment (2 ATP)
Lysis (create two pyruvate which generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH) |
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Term
| what type of phosphorylation is used in glycolysis? |
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Definition
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Term
| Define substrate level phosphorylation |
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Definition
| inorganic phosphate is directly attached to ADP with the help of an enzyme |
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Term
| what are the end products for ONE molecule of glucose through glycolysis? |
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Definition
2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvic acid |
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Term
| What organisms most commonly use fermentation for energy generation? |
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Definition
| prokaryotes and single celled organisms |
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Term
| What is the purpose of Fermentation in cells? |
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Definition
| Regenerate the NADH formed in glycolysis so it can return to accept the electrons from the cleaved glucose and generate the 2 ATP. 2 H are added to pyruvate to make lactic acid/ethanol |
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Term
What are the byproducts of fermentation?
(for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes) |
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Definition
Prokaryotes: 2NAD+, 2 CO2, 2 ethanol (or other acidic molecule)
Eukaryotes: 2NAD+, 2 Lactic acid |
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Term
| List the steps or cellular respiration |
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Definition
1. glycolysis
2. Acetyl Co A production
3. Krebs Cycle
4. ETC (electron transport chain) |
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Term
| What happens to pyruvate before it enters the krebs cycle? |
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Definition
| It is converted to Acetyl CoA by bonding to CoA. One CO2 is removed resulting in net 2 CO2 and 2 NADH from one glucose entering the Krebs cycle |
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Term
| Where does Krebs occur in eukaryotes? |
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Definition
| Matrix of the mitochondria with the ETC located on the cristae of the mitochondria membrane |
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Term
| What are the end products for Krebs cycle per ONE glucose? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the 4 transport proteins of the ETC? |
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Definition
flavoproteins
ubiquinones
metal-containing proteins
cytochromes |
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Term
| What is the goal of the ETC? |
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Definition
| reduce NADH and FADH2 by accepting their electrons and using them to pump H ions out of the mitochondrial cristae. |
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Term
| What happens to the electrons as they reach the final ETC protein? |
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Definition
| The e- is attached to a final electron acceptor such as Oxygen which generates a much less harmful water molecule. |
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Term
| How is ATP made from the high H concentration generated by the ETC? What is this process called? |
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Definition
H+ ions move through ATP synthase due to proton motive force (high to low conc) which adds inorganic phosphate to ADP.
Called chemiosmosis |
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Term
| How many ATP are made by the ETC? Net ATP from cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| approx 34 ATP for ETC and 38 total ATP |
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Term
| What are some of the final electron acceptors for anaerobic respiration? |
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Definition
| nitrates, nitrites, sulphates, CO2, Iron3, etc. |
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Term
| How are lipids used in cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| Fatty acid chains are broken down into 3 carbon chains of pyruvic acid which enter the Krebs cycle. |
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Term
| How are proteins used in cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| Proteases (outside the cell) break down proteins and remove amine (N) to be recycled or disposed of. Carbon molecules enter the Krebs cycle. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| How are chromosomes and bacterial DNA packaged? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| linear composition of genetic information made of nucleic acids |
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Term
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Definition
| physical characteristic that results from the genotype. |
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Term
| What are three differences between DNA and RNA |
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Definition
RNA is single stranded
Uracil instead of Thymine
Ribose instead of deoxyribose |
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Term
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Definition
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA) |
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Term
| which way to you read DNA and which way do you make DNA? |
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Definition
read 3 to 5
create 5 to 3 |
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Term
| What is the role of DNA helices? |
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Definition
| unwinds DNA. DNA gyrase removes super coils |
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Term
| Role of Primase in DNA replication |
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Definition
| Adds a short RNA primer for DNA Polymerase to attach to for replication |
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Term
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Definition
| Adds nucleotides starting at the RNA primer. Read DNA in the 3 to 5 direction and creates a new strand in the 5 to 3 direction |
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Term
| What happens to DNA after it is replicated? |
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Definition
| form of DNA polymerase edits and repairs the new strand. Once the editing is completed, the daughter strand is methylated by adding a methyl group added throughout the strand |
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Term
| what is the central dogma? |
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Definition
| DNA specifies the sequence of RNA which specifies proteins |
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Term
| Where does RNA synthesis begin and what directions is it made? |
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Definition
| Begins at initiation site (promoter) on coding strand of DNA and synthesizes in 5 to 3 direction |
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Term
| How is RNA processed after synthesis? |
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Definition
| Ribozymes remove introns from segment so you are only left with coding RNA. (this happens BEFORE the RNA leaves the nucleus) |
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Term
| What direction do ribosomes read mRNA? |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 ways mutations can occur |
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Definition
errors during replications
recombination (crossing over) |
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Term
| 3 types of mutations (classes) |
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Definition
neutral (silent)
harmful
beneficial |
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Term
| Neutral (silent) mutation |
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Definition
| single base change (substitution) where no change in AA sequence results (due to redundant code) |
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Term
| Harmful Mutations (3 types) |
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Definition
1. Missense (substitution)- change in nucleotide that results in different AA
2. Nonsense (substitution)- change in nucleotide that results in appearance of stop codon
3. Frameshift- insertion or deletion of nucleotide that results in shift in the reading frame of codons |
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Term
| Beneficial Mutations (examples) |
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Definition
sickle cell resulting in malaria resistance
drug resistance |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of DNA segments of homologous sequences of DNA (recombinants). Known as crossing over |
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Term
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Definition
| passing genes to the next generation |
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Term
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Definition
| transfer of genes among members of the same generations (donor sometimes dies) |
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Term
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Definition
Competent cells pick up DNA from environment
Discovered by Griffith in 1928 |
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Term
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Definition
| mixed heat treated cells (S) with capsule plasmid with living R strain cells (typically not deadly) and the R cells were able to pick up the capsule plasmid to kill the host (demonstrates transformation) |
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Term
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Definition
| Transfer of host DNA via bacteriophage vector |
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Term
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Definition
| transfer of cellular plasmids through pili. Must contain F+ plasmid to form sex pili |
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Term
| HFr (high frequency recombination) |
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Definition
If plasmid integrates with genomic DNA, it results in Hfr cell.
During conjugation, cells can transfer their plasmid and genomic DNA- usually incomplete due to large size. |
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Term
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Definition
| intentionally modifying the genomes or organisms for practical purposes- artificial or natural processes. |
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Term
| 3 goals of DNA recombination |
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Definition
1. eliminate undesirable phenotypic traits (humans, animals, plants, etc.)
2. Combine beneficial traits of two or more organisms
3. create organisms that synthesize products humans need (insulin) |
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Term
| examples of genetic engineering (3) |
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Definition
diabetes/insulin
Growth Hormone
Pest resistant foods |
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Term
| Basic process for genetic modification |
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Definition
1. observe a trait of interest
2. change or insert a gene in an attempt to modify the organism
3. Look for phenotypic changes
4. repeat or modify as needed. |
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Term
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Definition
| retrovirus enzyme that converts RNA to DNA (cDNA). Used because we can harvest RNA (which lacks introns) and can convert back to DNA for insertion into the genome. |
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Term
| Synthetic Nucleic Acids- define and give uses (4) |
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Definition
produce synthetic DNA and RNA probes
-locate sequences on genes (fluorescent DNA probes)
-determine genetic code of an organism
-create genes for specific proteins
-create antisense DNA to interfere with genes |
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Term
| Restriction Enzymes (what do they do, where do they come from, what are they used to do, what are the two types?) |
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Definition
1. Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA at specific locations (restriction sites)
2. Found in bacteria- defense against phages
3. used to cut desired DNA and insert into host or vector DNA
4. Sticky and blunt ends |
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Term
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Definition
| separating molecules of DNA based on charge, size, and shape. Allows isolation of specific DNA segments. |
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Term
| Gel Electrophoresis - what is the charge of DNA and what is the DNA drawn toward? |
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Definition
| DNA has negative charge and is drawn toward positive electrode |
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Term
| What is the gel material used in Gel Electrophoresis? |
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Definition
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Term
| Gel Electrophoresis - determining fragment size |
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Definition
| smaller fragments migrate further. can determine size by comparing distances migrated to curve of standards |
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Term
| Southern Blot (what is it and what is it used to do?) |
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Definition
DNA is transferred from gel to nitrocellulose paper
Used for:
-genetic fingerprinting
-diagnosis of infectious diseases
-demonstrate prevalence of an organism that cannot be cultured
-DNA microarrays |
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Term
| PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) |
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Definition
| used to replicate DNA molecules in high numbers |
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Term
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Definition
-DNA sample
-Primers
-Nitrogenous bases
-Heat resistant DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase)
-Thermocycler |
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Term
| Heat-resistant DNA Polymerase (Taq)- where is it found and why do we use it? |
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Definition
found in thermophilic bacteria
-used because it is not denatured by the heat of the thermocycler |
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Term
|
Definition
1. Denaturation
2. Annealing of Primers- Priming
3. Extensions |
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Term
| PCR- Step 1 (Denaturation) |
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Definition
| DNA sample heated to 94 degrees C to denature the dsDNA. This allows binding of primer |
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Term
| PCR- Step 2 (Annealing of Primers) |
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Definition
| Temp lowered to 55-65 degrees C- Allows primers to bond to target DNA |
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Term
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Definition
Temp raised to 72 degrees C (optimum for Taq polymerase)
Taq binds to DNA which synthesizes new strands using old templates. |
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Term
| Plasmids (natural vectors)- why are they useful? 4 |
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Definition
1. Easily picked up by bacteria
2. can be isolated from bacteria
3. can be generically engineered outside the bacteria
4. can be manipulated in the lab |
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Term
| How do you manipulate a plasmid? |
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Definition
| Use an endonuclease to cleave the plasmid and DNA in the same place and then the DNA may recombine into the plasmid. |
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Term
| Natural Methods of Plasmid Insertion |
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Definition
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation |
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Term
| Artificial Methods of Plasmid Insertion |
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Definition
Electroporation (electrical shock to induce competency for DNA uptake)
Protoplast fusion (remove cell walls from protoplasts and merge cells using polyethylene glycol)
Injection- gene gun and microinjection |
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Term
| Uses for Recombinant DNA Technology |
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Definition
Pharm applications- protein synthesis, vaccines
Genetic Screening (checking family mutations)
DNA fingerprinting (crime scenes and paternity testing)
Gene Therapy (replacing defective genes with normal copies- immunodeficiency and other diseases)
Xenotransplant (growing human organs and tissues on animals) |
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Term
| Agricultural Application of genetic engineering |
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Definition
-Transgenic organisms
-herbicide resistance
-salt tolerance
-freeze resistance
-pest resistance
-improve nutritional value and yield |
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Term
| What are the major differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic protein synthesis? |
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Definition
1. prokaryotes can form chains of ribosomes that process a single strand of RNA as it's being transcribed
2. Eukaryotes edit mRNA before sending outside the nucleus for translation
3. 70s vs 80s ribosomes |
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Term
| what is added to mRNA before translation? (eukaryotic) |
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Definition
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