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ESRM 362
Final Exam Review
86
Environmental Studies
Undergraduate 3
12/05/2011

Additional Environmental Studies Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What is Autecology?
Definition
The study of the interactions of an organism or species with the living and non-living factors of the environment
Term
(Growth and Survival Traits)
(RED)
What Traits distinguish one species from another?
Definition
i. Growth rate
ii. Lifeform
iii. Life span
iv. Biomass allocation
v. Ability to withstand environmental conditions
vi. Rooting depth
vii. Photosynthetic pathway
viii. Nitrogen fixation
ix. Mycorrhizal host
x. Phenology
Term
(RED)
Why do species occur where they do?

example: why do some things live in shade?
Definition
Response to environmental conditions:

Abiotic:
Drought, heat/cold, Inundation, fire, Sun/shade, Edaphic properties

Biotic:
Grazing, Predation, Fossorial Mammal, Disturbance, Human disturbance
Term
What is the primary method by which plants establish in new areas?
Definition
Seeds!
Term
(RED)
Which reproductive traits differ among species?
Definition
Age of first flowering
Phenology (timing)
Pollination method
Self-compatible?
Seed size
Seed quantity
-------------------------

Seed dispersal
Seed longevity
Synchroneity?
Term
(RED)
What are seed dispersal methods?
Definition
Hydrochory
Anemochory
Zoochory (internal or external)
Gravity
Ballistic (self-propelled)
Term
What is synchroneity?
Definition
Some plants flower consistently, others irregularly
Term
Now that we have thought about individual species, what happens when we think of them together in communities?
Definition
They interact
Term
What kind of webs are defined in trophic interactions? What are their traits
Definition
Nest webs: Each species rely on each other to nest

Food webs: Each species relies on each other to eat
Term
What are the three main classifications of organisms in trophic webs?
Definition
Producers
Consumers
Primary (herbivores/omnivores)
Secondary (omnivores/carnivores
Decomposers
Term
(RED)
What is a keystone species?
Definition
A species that has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass

May structure ecosystems, determine the types and numbers of other species in a community

Examples? Predators can greatly effect prey behavior
Term
(RED)
What is a trophic cascade?
Definition
Occur when predators reduce the abundance of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation
Term
"What if the sea otters disappear?"
Definition
Greatly simplified food web...Nothing is eating the sea urchins so the urchins eat all the starfish and it continues on
Term
What happened in Yellowstone (wolves)?
Definition
Wolves ate a lot of elk and the Aspen populations went back up.

The elk stopped browsing the riparian areas and moved into the uplands

Wolf population increased/ elk population decreased
Term
How can predators effect landscape levels?
Definition
Wolves gone, more elks eating trees on river banks, river banks have increased erosion rates
Term
Is wolf reintroduction passive restoration?

Other examples?

Advantages and disadvantages of this approach??????
Definition
Term
(RED)
What should be used as targets for restoration?
Definition
Many targets possible:
All native species
Mostly native species
Pre-settlement (1850) composition
Pre-European (1491) composition
Pre-Native American (??) composition
Pre-historic (13,000 BP) composition
Term
How should we establish goals?
Definition
Based on ecological assessment

Also based on context:
Social
Cultural
Economic
Political
Moral
Aesthetic
------------------
Example: Carbon offsets

Must be established a priori

May or may not be historical
Term
What are some non-historical restoration goals?
Definition
Non historical targets:
% native species
Diversity metrics: total vs. patch diversity
Abundance of Focal species: rare or keystone species
Ecological Processes: nutrient cycling, hydrologic attenuation
Term
What are some challenges to setting goals
Definition
Incomplete information
Uncertainty about future
Industrial rates of change
Ecosystems are complex
Spatially and temporally dynamic
Initial conditions matter
Term
What do successful restoration models require?
Definition
May need sequential references with which to assess restored states
Term
What is a restoration model?
Definition
Developmental trajectories

Especially required for long-term goals
Term
How can thinking about biodiversity guide restoration practice?
Definition
Term
What are some of the causes of the necessity for dry forest restoration?
Definition
Anthropogenic alterations

High Grade Logging

Fire Suppression
Term
What are dry forest restoration objectives?
Definition
Plan and Treat and Multiple Scales

Build resistance to wildfire

Promote resilience to insect outbreak

Conserve Old-growth structure

Sustain local communities

Create and maintain management options
Term
What are some dry forest restoration principles and their effects?
Definition
Reduce surface fuels -> Reduces potential flame length

Increase height to live crown -> Requires longer flame length to begin torching

Decrease crown density -> makes tree-to-tree crown (fire less probable)

Keep big trees of resistant species -> Less mortality for same fire intensity
Term
What is Clump distribution?
Definition
A major premise used in dry forest restoration
Term
What are the most important strategic foci when deciding how to restore a dry forest area?
Definition
Clump size and distribution

Tree type choice

Decide whether or not to keep old trees

How to thin

Isolate certain species?

Preserve wildlife habitat?
Term
Where does the cluster method work well (dry forest restoration)
Definition
Even aged stands with few old trees

high graded stands with some old trees

Plantations: PCT
Term
Where are cluster methods not useful? (dry forest restoration)
Definition
Stands with major tree health issues

Stands of where most of desired density is comprised of old trees
Term
What are the three elements of biodiversity?
Definition
Structure

Composition

Function
Term
(RED)
How relevant are biodiversity elements (Structure, Composition, Function) as restoration goals?
Definition
STRUCTURE:
Variables are:
Easy to measure
Static (don’t change quickly)

A common restoration criterion
Focus on mean values and, increasingly, range of variation

Might reflect particular site differences
Ignores mechanisms that maintain structure

COMPOSITION:
Variables are:
Somewhat easy to measure (need ID skills)
Fairly static (don’t change quickly)

A common restoration criterion

Ignores mechanisms that maintain composition

FUNCTION:
Variables can be:
Difficult to measure (e.g., CO2 flux)
Dynamic – fluctuate spatially and temporally

Need to choose the right variable!

Requires strong understanding of ecosystem
Term
Why is Function unique in comparison to Structure and Composition? (Biodiversity?
Definition
More generic than structure or composition
E.g., same process can occur with different suites of species
More relevant in light of climate change?

Often assumes that structure and composition will develop once processes are ‘fixed’
E.g., estuarine restoratio
Term
What would define a structural approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project?
Definition
Decide on desired forest structure (e.g., using reference data)

Compare extant and desired structures to develop thinning prescription:
How many trees to cut
Which sizes of trees to cut

Model how ecosystem process (fire behavior) responds to treatment
Term
What would define a compositional approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project?
Definition
Favor some species over others
E.g., Retain fire-tolerant species, remove fire-sensitive species

Not a primary focus in SW:
Forest contains few tree species
Tree species present haven’t changed greatly

Invasive species
Term
What would define a functional approach (biodiversity) to removing trees in a project?
Definition
Decide on desired fire behavior

Model fire behavior under various stand management alternatives:
How many trees to cut
Which sizes of trees to cut

Choose simplest alternative that achieves desired fire behavior

Measure resulting forest structure
Term
(RED)
What is a keystone species?
Definition
A species that if removed will greatly alter the environment.

It has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass
Term
(RED)
What is a keystone process?
Definition
A process necessary to the balance of an environment. Removal or alteration will guarantee a shift in the environment.
Term
(RED)
How does fire work as a keystone process?
Definition
Rationale:
Forests were maintained in an open state by fire

Fire is missing now, so let’s put it back
Term
(RED)
What are reference dynamics?
Definition
Example: fire frequency
Term
Are approaches to biodiversity exclusive?
Definition
No they are interchanging and usable in coexistence
Term
What are the scales of biodiversity?
Definition
Genetic
Population / species
Community / ecosystem
Landscape
Term
(RED)
How do the scales of biodiversity matter in restoration?
Definition
GENETIC:
How much genetic variation do you want in planting stock?
Horticulture: little
Restoration: lots

Clonal plants: very little genetic variation

Adaptation to site

POPULATION / SPECIES
For a given species:
Where to plant it?
Clustered?
Evenly distributed?
How many to plant?
When to plant it?
All same age, or in cohorts?

COMMUNITY / ECOSYSTEMS
Which species to plant together?
Relation between species and environmental conditions
E.g., wet habitats
Interactions – pollinators, etc.

Scale that receives most attention during restoration

LANDSCAPE

Relation of restored areas to matrix
Energy and nutrient flows
Distribution of patches
Edges
Connectivity
Term
How / why do disturbances matter for restoration?
Definition
Term
What is a disturbance?
Definition
A relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes the resource, substrate availability, or physical environment
Term
(RED)
Examples of disturbances?
Abiotic
Biotic
Anthropogenic
Definition
Term
Why do disturbances differ?
Definition
Ecological legacies
Historical contingency
Resource availability
Frequency
Patch size
Specificity
Pattern and process
Term
What is an ecological legacy? (Disturbances)
Definition
the living organisms, dead organic matter, and the physical structures … that remain after disturbance
Term
What is historical contingency (Disturbances)?
Definition
Is a disturbance within the range of variation of historical disturbances?
Term
Define resource availability (Disturbances)
Definition
More productive sites have more resources
We can alter productivity
Term
What is frequency (disturbances)?
Definition
Depending on the ecosystem, increases or decreases in frequency can cause problems
Term
How does patch size play into disturbances?
Definition
Large patch
Regeneration succession

Small patch(es)
Patch dynamics
Little change in composition

Heterogeneity of disturbance effects increases species diversity
Term
What is specificity (disturbances)?
Definition
Who is affected?
Species
Age
Size
Health
Term
What are the three themes of disturbances and which disturbances fall into each category?
Definition
Initial conditions:

Ecological legacies
Historical contingency

Productivity:

Resource availability
Frequency

Ongoing dynamics:

Patch size
Specificity
Pattern and process
Term
How do disturbances apply to restoration?
Definition
Restoration often (always?) involves intentional disturbances


Appropriate’ disturbances depend on:
ecosystem
restoration goals
Term
(RED)
How can disturbance ecology inform restoration projects?
Definition
INITIAL CONDITIONS:

Are site physical conditions appropriate relative to restoration goals?
Are invasive species present?
Do desired species need to be planted?
How similar is disturbance to historic ones in this ecosystem?

PRODUCTIVITY:

Are resource levels appropriate?
More productive sites often have more plant growth – especially by ‘weedy’ species – and faster growth rates
Some species are disturbance-dependent

ONGOING DYNAMICS:

Disturbance characteristics affect community composition and structure
How often is disturbance required?
Do disturbances target particular species?
Eg, selective herbicide use
Eg, fires to kill fire-sensitive species
Term
What are the three categories of disturbance resistance?
Definition
Stable: able to return to starting value


Resistant: changed little by disturbance


Resilient: easily altered but rapidly returns to starting value
Term
(RED)
Brainstorm examples of ecosystems that are stable in spite of disturbances

(RED)
Definition
Background’ levels of bark beetles
Drought in prairies
Fire in fire-adapted systems
Tides in intertidal zones
Term
What type of disturbance is most likely to cause unstable ecosystem states?
Definition
Those not found in historical contingency

Is a disturbance within the range of variation of historical disturbances?
Term
What is classical succession (ecosystem dynamics)?
Definition
Steady, directional change to a single equilibrium endpoint
Goal = climax community

Based largely on species traits
Competitive ability
Stature
Seed dispersal

Deterministic – easy to model
High predictability

Implies that we just need to reverse the degradation
Appropriate for minimally degraded sites
Inappropriate for highly disturbed sites?
Term
What are the three different views of ecosystem dynamics?
Definition
Classical succession
State and transition
Persistent non-equilibrium
Term
Define state and transition (ecosystem dynamics)
Definition
Some ecosystems change rapidly:
Crash of fishery stocks
Woody plant invasion of grasslands

Little change until a threshold is crossed

Possible to have multiple equilibriums
Term
What are the implications for restoration of state and transition ecosystem dynamics?

(RED)
Definition
‘Fits’ some systems well (e.g., rangelands)

Implies more complex management than required by classical succession
Moderate predictability

Need to understand thresholds

Initial conditions important

Management may require different actions than caused original transition
Term
How would you restore shrubland to grassland?

(RED)
Definition
Term
What is Persistent non-equilibrium (ecosystem dynamics)?
Definition
Assumes external factors are more important than in other views:
Stochasticity (random events)
Past history (legacies)


Conceptual idea; difficult to ‘prove’
Difficult to distinguish from multiple equilibrium states

Low predictability

Relevant for urban settings?
Term
What is meant by Manipulating Dynamics (ecosystem dynamics)?
Definition
Can achieve similar results by different activities at different spatial and temporal scales

Example: recovery of riparian vegetation in Yellowstone
Option 1: plant lots of trees and shrubs, protect from browse
Option 2: reintroduce wolves; elk stay out of riparian areas and vegetation recovers
Term
Disturbances initiate or direct subsequent ecosystem dynamics

Models of ecosystem dynamics:
Summarize our ‘view of the world’
Can guide restoration actions
Take time and effort to evaluate
Definition
Term
Contrast Stresses and Disturbances
Definition
Stress.
Eg: Desert organisms are adapted to seasonal and yearly fluctuations in precipitation. Drought is not uncommon.

Disturbance:
Eg. Fire, grazing, or extreme drought can affect soil quality and vegetation for many years
Term
What are some values of arid desert landscapes?
Definition
Plant and animal species not found anywhere else
Endangered species
Indigenous food crops
Plant-derived drugs and other chemicals from drylands
Flood control, water purification, dust control, sustainable livestock use
Term
What are threats to desert ecosystems?
Definition
Grazing
Agriculture
Roads
Military activity
Mining
Recreation
Pollution
Changes to fire regime
Invasive species
Climate change
Term
What are some abiotic limitations to desert restoration?
Definition
Loss of topsoil
late-successional species fail when planted into early successional soils.

Moisture limitations
Pulses of establishment with rain events

Landscape scale factors
Eg. Restore low land with good
soils, but if the slope above fails…
Term
What are some biotic limitations to desert restoration?
Definition
Inoculation not possible for most species of microorganisms
Weeds
Arid systems tend to be open; disturbance adds new open spaces
Animals
Herbivory, trampling
Biodiversity
There are always more rare species than abundant species.
Tradeoff between species that establish and stabilize the soil, but their longevity and competitive ability reduce return of native species.
Term
What is the stress-gradient hypothesis? (desert restoration)
Definition
As abiotic conditions become more stressful, facilitation interactions become more common
Facilitation is where one species’ structure or function benefits another species

Eg. In areas of lower precipitation, seedlings rely more heavily on nurse plants.
Term
What are the two main aspects of community assembly?
Definition
Filters and Priority effects
Term
What are the filters of community assembly?
Definition
DISPERSAL
Species differ in dispersal ability
Method
Distance
Barriers

ENVIRONMENT
Species differ in environmental tolerances
Shade
Nutrients
Moisture

DISTURBANCE:
Species differ in reaction to disturbances:
Type
Frequency
Duration
Term
What are the implications of the filters of community assembly?
Definition
Species selection is one of the most important decisions made during a restoration
Only a subset of species can ‘pass through’ the filters at a given site

Restoration often:
Overcomes dispersal limitation
Alters environmental conditions
Imposes select disturbances
Term
What are Priority effects in community assembly?
Definition
Dominance generally by species that:
Are already present at site:
Extant vegetation
Seed bank
Arrive first
Term
Describe the colonization/competition trade off
Definition
Competition/colonization trade-off
Good colonists = weaker competitors
Permits coexistence and species replacements
Term
How can restoration control priority?
Definition
Site preparation to remove undesired species before planting

Adding species that would not colonize naturally or quickly




Do not need to assemble entire community at once
Interseeding
Coordinate species introductions with stages in ecosystem development
E.g., UBNA - shade
Expect some species to ‘phase out’ over time
Term
What are the two main principles of restoration economics?
Definition
Economics deals with:
Incentives
Costs and benefits
Term
Responsible party vs No responsible party (who should pay for restoration)?
Definition
RESPONSIBLE PARTY:
Feasible for some point sources
Those who caused damage
Eg, fines for Deepwater Horizon spill
Those who will cause damage
Eg, Mitigation banking

NO RESPONSIBLE PARTY:
How are funds raised?
Taxes
General
Specific products or activities
Volunteers – money and time
Private property owners
Term
Name some economic valuation methods
Definition
Replacement cost: Cost of restoring a damaged system

Replacement cost multiplier: Cost of restoring an ecosystem plus additional funding for lost values during damage and uncertainty

Valuing ecosystem goods and services: Evaluate economic benefits of restoring a given good or service using a tradeable substitute. E.G, watershed for restoration vs. a water treatment plant to improve water quality

Travel cost method

Hedonic price method
Term
What are the three dimensions of commitment?
Definition
Affective: emotional attachment to, identification with, & involvement in volunteering

Normative: perceived obligation to volunteer

Continuance (Calculative): perceived cost associated with quitting volunteering
Term
Why do people commit?
Definition
People continue to volunteer over long periods of time because they are committed to the cause!
Volunteer retention efforts can benefit from understanding what motivates commitment
Content of recruitment messages,
Articulation of mission statements,
Provision & organization of volunteering opportunities & settings
Term
What are the 6 dimensions of motivations to volunteer?
Definition
Environment
Socially interact
Learning & Career
Escape & Exercise
Help community
Ego Protection & Enhancement
Term
Summarize commitment motivations and findings
Definition
Ego is an important predictor of initial participation—recruitment

Social interactions are important for particular organizations

Community is a strong predictor of commitment—enduring involvement—retention

Social factors are more significant predictors of participation & commitment to eco-restoration volunteerism
Ecological motivations appear to moderate the effects of social interactions & community, but rarely so?
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