The insertion of pollen from one plant into the stigma of another

This occurs when insects extract nectar from one plant and then insert into the stigma of another plant when they go to extract pollen from i

This is because when they extract nectar some pollen sticks to their bodies and therefore gets placed on other plants that the insects extract nectar form

paying farmers and landowners in exchange for providing some sort of ecological service

services include working towards goods like clean water and fresh air

purification of water and maintianing biodiversity

a permit that allows the holder to emit 1 ton of carbon dioxide.

Credits are awarded to countries that reduce their emissions to below their quota that they're supposed to

part of kyoto protocol- designed to prevent carbon dioxide release increase

Carbon Market

based on Cap and Trade

the trading of carbon credits

cap is a cap set for how much a country is allowed to emit

countries can sell + acquire more carbon credits somehow and also resort to using Clean Development Mechanisms to pay another country to reduce its emissions and then use that as lowering their own emissions to meet the cap

1997 Agreement by the United Nations framework convention for climate change that stated that industrialized Annex 1 countries had specific reduction goals. Developing countries like China and India didn't have to meet any reduction goals

Annex 1 members had to lower emissions at least 5% lower than their emissions in 1990 by 2012

problems= no way to really track - honor system

developing countries Chi + Ind release a lot

The storage of carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere

vegetation can do it short-term

earth soil= medium tern

long term= millions of feet deep trapped by water

Payment for Environmental Services

Example= paying poor people in an area to maintain the environment in some way

example= maintain fresh water

Mexican PES= maintan forest conver, biodiversity, water quality, conservation

1. There are more species in the tropics because there are more ecological niches

2. There is good climatic stability in the Tropics, so there is a relative constancy in available resources, allowing for the finer specialization of species and adaptations than those areas with more erratic climates

Increasing diversity with increasing latitude (north and south)

Less light available at lower elevations

More species near the equator

There is not always greatest diversity in areas with the most enriched soil

Lower diversity in enriched soils occurs because plants don't have time to adapt to changed conditions

When plants do have time to adapt, then they are more diverse in areas with enriched soils

Bacteria convert nitrogen from the air into nitrates

nitrages get absorbed by plants and move up in the food chain by herbivores and carnivores

When they excrete waste, nitrogen gets released into the atmosphere

When they die they decompose and nitrogent gets converted to ammonia and some ammonia gets absorbed and other times bacteria in soil convert remains back into nitrates

Plants get light from the sun and use it for photosynthesis  + converted into chemical energy that's transferred to heterotrophs and then released as heat

Energy can't be recycled and the energy clycle uses the Sun to work

Carbon Sequestration

The storage of Carbon

Plants and Trees absorb Co2 when they do processes like photosynthesis

They use carbon as building blocks for foliage, trunks, branches

Mature forests are reserviors of stored carbon, and planting trees where there weren't any reduces amount of Co2 in area

Carbon Sinks= incl trees and soak up carbon humans release in the air

Forest plants + soil drive carbon cycle because they absorb carbon in photosynthesis and release it in respiration

Activities done to protect the environment

ex= planting trees, fixing degraded areas,

as part of the Kyoto protocol, industrialized Annex 1 countries could fund CDMs in other countries and use those lowered emissions as part of their own removed emissions that they have to have lowered by about 5% from the 1990 values in 2012

Concerned Scientist's Recommendaitons for forests as a way to reduce climate change

CSS

1. Conservation of existing forests to prevent further deforestation + harm

2. sequestration by increasing carbon-storage capacity, could be done by planting trees, promoting natural regeneration of plants, and increasing biomass

3. Substituting products that use a lot of energy to make with wood products and using woody biomass as fuel

Goal is to promote a peaceful prosperous Asia

supports Asian initiative to improve governance, law, civil society, women's empowerment, economic reform and development, sustainable development, and international relations

Ex=established an early warning system with conflict-ridden groups in Sri Lanka to mobilize local community actions before things escalated

Largest Organization for planting trees

wants to inspire ppl to plant, nurture, and celebrate trees

They benefit communities by using intrapersonal methods of communication

They have the advantage of selecting certain places for projects and specifying the amount of time that they will work in the project on- overcoming some shortcomings of the gov't

Community-based NGOS can acquire land, construct housing, provide infastructure, and operate infastructure like public toilets

They can become spokespersons for the poor and operate on their behalf

CDM + REDD+ projects can provide funding to economically disadvantaged youth

ex= REDD giving money to youth in Mexico to take care of the environment

it's the voluntary integration of social and environmental activities of enterprises

sustainable development and job opportunities

Ex= Communication from the commission of 22 March 2006 Council of European Economic committee promoted corporate responsibility for growth and jobs

Malaysia is the world's largest exporter of palm oil and the 2nd largest producer of oil after Indonesia

China's rapid development and energy need has put a demand on natural resources like oil for countries like Indonesia and Malaysia

Malaysia produces a lot of palm oil

Efforts by small communities and/or natives to map against a dominant power structure

Coined by Nancy Peluso in response to maps developed by Indonesian farmers as a means of contesting government maps that undermined indigenous interests

marginlized + indigenous people are getting their interests out on maps at the cost of sharing too much of their indigneous information

maps can be made easilty W/O knowlege about certain areas that could be being used by indigenous

individual trees are known by their names, and landscapes are known by spirits + deities -> nature is cultural

Role of NGOs in the Tropics

·         an emphasis is placed on sustainable management

·         Western views are different from indigenous people’s views, and sometimes, the local people are seen as backward, lazy, or destructive to the environment

·         many local people are dependent on the environment for a livelihood, so tension is created when NGO’s try to ban or restrict use of resources

Ex= Rainforest Action Network- goal is to conserve cultural and biological diversity of forests worldwide

protect rainforests- the natural resource that forest people rely on for survival

Achievements in Amazon= obtaining land rights for forest communities and implementing sustainable development activities while preserving integrity of the forest

It's a term for a customary right that is not necessarily recognized by governments/ local governing bodies

ex= a village recognizing that a certain familiy owns an apple tree

the rights natives have over a certain property their familiy owned for many generations

A forest that is created by maps Ex= Dersu Uzala Capitn

mapping of a region's strategic space/ resources, political institutions, government rules

declaration of soverignity and domain: creation of legal codes, laws, identificaion of forest species, forest policies, development of management plan, professional forest services

U.S. in Phillipines

Subsistence= form of farming in which all crops reaised are used for the farmer and his/her family and little is left for other people

market-based economy= am economy that is not planned and controlled by a central authority

Well-developed Canopy, average of 200-225 centimeters of rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year

understory vegatation is fairly thick, short trees 20 m, shrubs

included process like biogeochemical cycling, carbon cycling, nutrient cycling, nitrogen cycling, and energy transfers

refers to gaps in the forest from trees falling over,

create mosiacs of small disturbances in nature,

creates a more complex vegetation structure

a form of habitat fragmentation that is formed when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves small patches of forest fragments left over

the area that separates woodland patches can be natural open areas, farmland, or developed areas, invasive grass can also take over the area

Aka. Slash and Burn Agriculture

tropical soils are very fragile, and agriculture in the tropics depletes soil-based nutrients very quickly, leading to decreasing yields very quickly

swidden argiculturalists run cycles of leaving land alone for 25 years, then slash and burn , abandonment, and leaving land alone to help stimulate and recover soil

1. Technical expertise is only legitimate expertise

2. Macro-level comprehensive planning

3. fiber (timber ) is great resource and its production is main goal

4.forestry is a biological activity

Virgin Forests that were pristine and untouched in the past, which is untrue

anything else is degraded

there were once traditional processes that were controlled

there was once a social order

traditional practices that degrade were controlled

rural African population increase-root cause of environmental and social degradation

African society is anti-commercial, subsistence-orientated

traditions continuously applied until they disturb society

False Assumptions Made by Social Scientists

Complicit Social History

complicit means illegal

Complicit Ecological Analysis

social scientists have been complicit in producing a view of history that reveals that there was once a harmonius past, and that there is increasing tension now

Com Eco Analysis- narrative of forest change from one that is good and undisturbed by humans to one that is disturbed and degraded by human activity

These are narratives that social scientists and politicians tell to justify their actions and explain events

romantic links forged between social scientists' assumptions means that vegetation change has moral messages

Tucker says siwdden is evil, Fernow-fire problem is a result of bad habits and loose morals

The original climax vegetation provides a baseline, so when society or vegetation differs from it, there is justification for intervenction (Ostrum's leviathan)

New ecological theory rejects the ideal of a single environmental maximum, there is a continual transition with stable states created by multiple factors

Shifts between states can be triggered by a particular conjunction of ecological factors

This means that there's no point trying to figure out a region's fundamental, archetypal vegetation because vegetation trajectory is determined by past vegetation paths

Global Climate and Env Organization View

and REDD+ view

They advocate for wildlife and high forests as opposed to what people want

REDD may reward people for the creation of a forest cover expecially if they rely on remote sensing for monitoring. In order to show an increase in forest cover, people may suppress indigenous swidden practices and other practices that cause an open forest where you could grow crops (agroforestry)

limiting agroforestry (open forest) in favor of cover

States and Transition Models

linear succession

States and Transition Model

Ball and Cup Model

States and Transition

Box and Pointer Model

Arrows represent transition and a change in state

Each box is a state

represents a pool of resources and a process

Living things that are grouped together by interaction among members in their environment

importance on stories and who is telling them

Fortress conservation vs. More Open Models

Fortress=maintaining wildlife inside parks and under state control

2 Main Factions

Fortress conservation= best way to save the elephants, includes approach of animal behaviorists

More Open Models-elephants can be seen at population level and not at individual level, account for disturbances and future changes, approach of conservation biologists

Conservation biologists and Masaai (ppl and elephants can co-exist)

Amboselli Scientists- elephants must be conserved no matter what

Natives want trees, but environmental groups do not want elephants to get harmed

CAMPFIRE project transforms elephants from hairy rats to valued property

Bambi is used as a symbol for communities

the idea of a narrative and who is telling the story is important

elephants seen as valued property

there is aproblem of elephant compression in Kenya, and fortress conservation is seen as the only right way to save the elephants

elephants seens as a kwystone species

Ecosystem Gradient

gradient

exclosures

increase in trees further from park

develop a hypothesis for testing

fewer elephants -> more trees

Experimental-closures = controls for salt intrusion, impacts of different species, takes many years, highly visible, people can visit

use of diatoms, weather affects fossils

reconstruct past climate based on plant and animal fossil remains and sedmientary remains as well

counting number of tree rings to date a tree; doesn't work in tropical rainforest because there is constant  rainfall and no distinct seasons

process of dendrochronology= plant + sample material, cross-date the sample, analyze fire patterns temporally/spatially

They are important because of the plant and animal material that they contain

deposits preserced from pack-rat urine that dries and hardens quickly, forming 'amberat'

Amberat stains rock walls in vertical streaks or curtains below ledges and coats middens, which pack rats make to store their food

works very well, some things conserved over 40,000 radiocarbon years

Acquires infomation about nature, forest, and environment

aerial photos can show changes over time

forests that are in their natural state before being mapped, explored, and exploited for research/ resources

if forest is cut down or manipulated, it's not a virgin forest

forest's ability to withstand a disturbance

not much vegetation in understory to climb up to crown

high frequency. low intensity fires

accommodate gradual changes and tend to return to prior condition after a disturbance

Americans place a great emphasis on conservation and extraction of resources in foreign lands

local people who depend on the environment for their livelihood don't like the restrictions

developing countries don't want to impede economic growth for the sake of reducing carbon emissions when already-developed countries have already emitted so much/ exploited natural resrouces to reach their status

colonialism involves direct exploitation of resources by an imperial countri in a colonial country

global capitalism has led to an increased demand for resources leading to increased eploitation of resources and deforestation-and forests sequester carbon, so more co2 emissions won't be sequestered

extension of nation's soveriegnity by establishment of colonies in which indigenous are directly ruled/displaced

colonizing nations usually get direct control over the resources, labor, and markets of the colonial territory

colonialism also based on the idea that the morals + values of colonizer are superior to colonized

strong demand for timber has increased production of cutting timber in Phillipines

land surveyors get paid for calculating value of timber

High grading and taking best wood stopped, they just started to take all of the wood

Swidden stopped, systematic tropical logging in Phillipines

Wood pulp market developed

there was sometimes regeneration of trees failure

Tucker Article with Profiteers and Elites

profiteer=person who wants to make an unfair/illegal profit, usually in the black market

Profiteers have come together with elites to make more money with governments and dictators

for big agriculture like timber, bananas, and sugar

poor are displaced, local knowledge is ignored, local industry is fringe,

foresters are pawns, and their knowledge/science woulnd up benefitting corporations

before 1970's, foresters didn't want to keep forests 'the same', they wanted to improve them

stopped high grading, they promoted sustainable management for TIMBER

Forest Diversity not a goal, Filipino foresters recruited from the wealthier class

topical forests are the most diverse

there is no keystone, chief predator species

seasons are less distinct- constant rainfall and lots of sunlight

forests are political and social entities, so value is judged differently

communities diversify with time but without barriers spread

climatic stabliity, more niches

competition- maximum competition with optimal environment - not constrained by drought/cold, but there are a lot of catastrophic events in the rainforest

predation- lots of predators, lots of prey, circular

productivity- higher productivity might mean more species? just a correlation, not a cause

maybe just because it's just more extensive- there are other large zones comparable to some tropical zones but are less diverse

intermdiate disturbance hypothesis- gap dynamics

Compare government-supported large-scale management for carbon and intensive management for timber --impact on local people and forest.    

Locals require agricultural land and timber resources that leads to exploitation of resources

govt-supported large-scale management leads to leviathan approach that creates carbon credits with pollution permits, which assigns a monetary value to polluting atmoshpere