Term
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Definition
| Extent to which the study is free of errors |
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Term
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Definition
-Degree to which the results of a study are true for the target population
-Influenced by systematic error |
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Term
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Definition
| -Degree to which the results of a study are relevant for populations other than the target population |
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Term
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Definition
-Deviation of results or interferences from the truth, leading to deviation
-Any trend in collection, interpretation, publication, review of data that can lead to conclusions that are not true |
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Term
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Definition
| Error from the kind of individuals the observer is seeing |
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Term
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Definition
-Faulty logic or mistaken beliefs on the part of the investigator
-False conclusions about explanation for the associations between variables |
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Term
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Definition
| Difference between a true value and that actually obtained as a result of faulty design of a study |
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Term
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Definition
| Error due to the interviewer's subconscious or conscious gathering of selective data |
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Term
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Definition
-Systematic error from inaccurate measurement or classification of subjects on the study variables
-Occurs in data collection phase
_exposure vs. nonexposure |
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Term
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Definition
| Selective suppression or revealing of information such as past history of STDs |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs unless the reference population have a known chance of selection in the sample |
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Term
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Definition
-Error due to differences in the characteristics between those who are selected for the study and those who aren't
-Occurs in design stage |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Convenience Sample |
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Definition
| Missing representative sample of target population |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Healthy Worker Effect |
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Definition
| Workers tend to be healthier than general population |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Membership Bias |
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Definition
Differences in groups contribute bias
-ex. military |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Volunteer Bias |
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Definition
| Individuals who take part may tend to be different from those who do not |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Convenience Sample |
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Definition
| Missing representative sample of target population |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Healthy Worker Effect |
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Definition
| Workers tend to be healthier than general population |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Membership Bias |
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Definition
Differences in groups contribute bias
-ex. military |
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Term
| Selection Bias -> Volunteer Bias |
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Definition
| Individuals who take part may tend to be different from those who do not |
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Term
| Measurement Bias -> Differential Misclassification |
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Definition
Different between the study and comparison groups
Over or under estimation of the true magnitude of the measure of association |
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Term
| Measurement Bias -> Non-differential Misclassification |
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Definition
-Degree of mismatch between study and comparison groups is uniform
-Equal frequency of misclassification on exposure status
-Results in dilution of the measure of association
-Biases toward null hypothesis |
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Term
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Definition
-Random Sample Selection
-Standardize measurement tools
-Objective means of verifying exposure and outcome
-Blind investigators
-Aggressive follow-up to prevent subject loss |
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Term
| Confounding (and 4 things needed for it) |
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Definition
-Situation in which the measure of the effect of an exposure on risk is distorted because of the association of exposure with other factors
-Usually due to external forces; extrinsic factors of the study
1. Must be associated with exposure
2. Must be an independent risk factor for the outcome
3. Must not be an intermediate step in causal chain of exposure and outcome
4. Must be present to a greater or lesser extent in study or comparison group |
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Term
| Confounding (and 4 things needed for it) |
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Definition
-Situation in which the measure of the effect of an exposure on risk is distorted because of the association of exposure with other factors
-Usually due to external forces; extrinsic factors of the study
1. Must be associated with exposure
2. Must be an independent risk factor for the outcome
3. Must not be an intermediate step in causal chain of exposure and outcome
4. Must be present to a greater or lesser extent in study or comparison group |
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Term
| Ways of Controlling Confounding |
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Definition
-Restrictions on study subjects
-Matching (age, gender, etc) |
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Term
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Definition
| The results observed in a study are no different from what might have happened as a result of chance |
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Term
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Definition
-False associations
-False secondary or due to chance, bias, failure to control extraneous variables |
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Term
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Definition
| Real associations but not causal associations |
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Term
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Definition
-Changes in the exposure produce changes in the outcome
-Aligns with the principles of Hill's Postulates |
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Term
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Definition
Used to determine if statistical associations were likely to represent causal associations
*Temporal Sequence
*Strong Association
*Consistent Association
*Dose-Response relationship
*Biologic Plausibility
*Experimental support |
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Term
| Environmental Epidemiology |
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Definition
| Studies often require approximations and modeling of quantification of exposures |
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Term
| 4 Driving forces of environmental health |
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Definition
1. Rapid globalization, industrialization and urbanization
2. Poverty, inequality, non-sustainable consumption and population growth
3. Chemical transportation
4. Global climate change |
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Term
| Two dimensions of exposure |
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Definition
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Term
| Complexities of Environmental health |
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Definition
-longer overall life expediencies
-children are politically powerless
-High social and economic costs associated with poor environmental health and children |
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Term
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Definition
-Environmental factor under study is a chemical
-Exposure level and dose can be estimated by measuring concentration in body fluids or tissues (blood and urine samples) |
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Term
| Less than ___% of all chemical are routinely tested for neurotoxicity |
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Definition
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Term
| 7 Major Global Environmental Threats |
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Definition
1. Poor Hygiene
2. Air Pollution
3. Water Quality and quantity
4. Disease vectors and changes in their distribution
5. Chemical Hazards
6.Injuries and Accidents
7. Emerging Issues |
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Term
| E.Coli sources of infection |
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Definition
-Lives in guts of cattle, deer, goats, sheep and also pigs
-transferred to processed meat
-found in non-pastuerized products |
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Term
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Definition
Symptoms - fever, severe stomach cramps, bloody diarrhea for 5-7 days
-more often in children
-about 70,000 a year |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specific populations and the application of the study to control health problems |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Factors that influence health
-biological, chemical, physical, social, cultural, economic, genetic, behavioral |
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Term
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Definition
| Means to prevent, reduce and control morbidity and mortality |
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Term
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Definition
| Age, gender, race, socioeconomics, occupation, religion, marital status, environmental exposure, lifestyle |
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Term
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Definition
-Variations of morbidity and mortality in a population
-no prior hypothesis and only outcome being assessed
-Provides rates not rationale |
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Term
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Definition
| Identify causes of morbidity and mortality |
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Term
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Definition
-Patient-oriented
-used in clinical decision making process |
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Term
| Fields of epidemiological study |
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Definition
-social science/behavorial (study of trends in human behavior)
-Acute disease (study of trends in acute and infectious disease)
-chronic disease (trends in chronic disease and influence of long term health habits)
-environmental (Study of impact on environmental events and exposures on health) |
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Term
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Definition
-On air, waters and places
-References health to environmental, dietary, behavioral, and constitutional conditions'-recognized determinants of health |
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Term
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Definition
-Natural and POlitical Observations made upon the Bills of Mortality
-descriptive epidemiology with mortality data
-observations (noted regional differences, 1/3 of children under 5 died, and higher mortality in men) |
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Term
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Definition
-"father" of immunology
-Smallpox
-Milkmaids exposed to cowpox did not acquire it
-inoculated young boy with cowpox
-mass vaccination campaigns followed |
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Term
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Definition
-Cholera Outbreak in London, 1849
-two water companies drawing water from Thames
-Removed Broad Street pump handle |
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Term
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Definition
-Germ theory of disease
-Sterilization
-Koch's Postulates
*found in all cases of the disease examined
*Prepared and maintained in a pure culture
*Capable of producing the original infection
*retrievable from an innoculated animal |
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Term
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Definition
-Diseases or conditions that must be reported to a healthy authority
-Diseases and condition reporting requirements vary by state |
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Term
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Definition
| Host, agent and environment |
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Term
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Definition
| Intrinsic characteristics that influence an individuals' susceptibility to disease |
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Term
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Definition
| Biological, chemical and physical hazards that can introduce disease |
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Term
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Definition
| extrinsic characteristics that can affect exposure to the agent, effectiveness of the agent or susceptibility of the host |
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Term
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Definition
| -a state of well-being and not just the absence of disease |
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Term
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Definition
| a person in the population or study group identified as having the particular disease or condition under investigation |
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Term
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Definition
| term used to characterize a single instance of disease or condition in an individual or defined group of individuals at a certain point in time |
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Term
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Definition
-Person or animal that affords subsistence to an infectious agent under natural conditions
-may be the population or group or their characteristics that are relevant to health (host factors) |
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Term
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Definition
-an insect or living carrier that transports an infectious agent from an infected individual
-an ordered set of numbers representing the values of a set of variables |
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Term
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Definition
-Number of new cases of disease
-MUST include a unit of time
-# of new events/# of persons exposed to risk during period
-used to study causation
-denominator can be everyone or a subset |
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Term
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Definition
| Concluding that THERE IS AN ASSOCIATION between an exposure and a disease when IN REALITY THERE IS NO ASSOCIATION |
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Term
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Definition
| Concluding THERE IS NO ASSOCIATION between an exposure and a disease when IN REALITY THERE IS AN ASSOCIATION |
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Term
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Definition
| probability that a test statistic would be as extreme than observed if the null hypothesis were true (p<.05% is good) |
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Term
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Definition
-Degree of non-systematic error
-affected by sources of random error
-difficult to identify all specific measurement errors |
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Term
| 2 main categories of study designs |
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Definition
Descriptive (no hypothesis)
and
Analytic (yes hypothesis) |
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Term
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Definition
-50% ethylmercury by weight
-preservative in preventing microbiologic growth in the even of accidental contamination
-removed from US vaccines by 2002 |
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Term
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Definition
-Thimerosal
-MMr causing GI-> leading to autism |
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Term
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Definition
-Case series -> descriptive and no hypothesis
-Flawed
-Retracted |
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Term
| Flaws in Wakefield's Study |
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Definition
-he did no sample blinding
-No mention to how preventing false positives working with measles was being avoided
-Applied for patent in rival vaccine not enclosed
-8 of 12 were involved in legal proceedings about matter |
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Term
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Definition
| -favors rejection of epidemiological evidence of a causal relationship between MMR vaccine and autism between thimerosal containing vaccines and autism |
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Term
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Definition
-Number or proportion of a group of people who experience the onset of a health-related event during a specified time
-(number of new events in a specified period x(10^n)/Number of persons exposed to risk during this period |
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Term
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Definition
-number of existing cases of disease at a given point in time
-(number of people with the disease at a specific time X(10^n)/number of people in the population at risk at the specified time
-10^n - per 100% or per 1000 |
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Term
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Definition
Point - at a specific point in time
Period - at any time period during a specific period
Lifetime - for at least part of their life |
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Term
| Factors that influence prevalence |
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Definition
Severity of illness
Duration of illness
Number of new cases |
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Term
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Definition
-an illness due to a specific infectious agent or its toxic products that arises through transmission of that agent
-or products from an infected person to a susceptible host |
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Term
| non-communicable/noninfectious |
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Definition
-an illness not due to a specific agent or toxic product
-typically originates from within the affected person |
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Term
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Definition
-A supposition, arrive at from observation or reflection, that leads to refutable predictions
-any conjecture case in a form that will allow it to be tested and refuted |
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Term
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Definition
-Referring to a health effect, brief
-referring to expoure, brief, intense, or short term
-sometimes specifically referring to a brief exposure of high intensity |
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Term
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Definition
-referring to a health-related state lasting a long time
-referring to an exposure, prolonged or long term, often with specific reference to low
-3 or more months |
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Term
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Definition
-Common infection in a population and/or region
-sometime host dependent
-vector impact |
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Term
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Definition
-short term event
-may infect a large number of people
-Outcomes
*epidemic
*endemic
*Cease-source is contained |
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Term
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Definition
-Widespread in a certain population and area
-Typically lasts a defined period of time or until disease is considered endemic
-Often used to describe new, emerging infections or conditions |
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Term
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Definition
-Widespread dissemination of disease or condition
-involves most countries/continents |
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Term
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Definition
| -Proximity and/or contact with a source of a disease agent in such a manner that effective transmission of the agent or harmful effects of the agent may occur |
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Term
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Definition
-Used to designate a group whose members have been exposed to a suspected cause of disease or health state of interest
-or possess a characteristic that is determinant of the health outcome of interest |
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Term
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Definition
-Term for classifying individuals or groups according to their level of exposure
-May have measurable levels of difference |
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Term
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Definition
-Term for classifying individuals or groups according to their level of exposure
-May have measurable levels of difference |
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Term
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Definition
-Disease or other health-related problem being studied
-All possible results that may stem from exposure to a causal factor
-All identified changes in health status arising as a consequence of the handling of a health problem |
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Term
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Definition
-Classification on the outcome
-Typically has disease or does not have disease |
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Term
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Definition
| -person or study group in a population identified as having the particular disease or condition under investigation |
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Term
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Definition
| -The comparison groups in a case control study and in a randomized control trial that differs in disease experience or allocation from the subjects or cases in the study |
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Term
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Definition
-That which is being studied
-typically the individual or group |
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Term
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Definition
-Epi study in situations where nature is allowed to take its course
-Differences in one characteristic are studies in relation to changes or differences in other w/o the intervention of the investigator |
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Term
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Definition
-A study in which the conditions are under the direct control of the investigator
-A population is selected for a planned trial whose effects are measured by comparing the outcome in the experimental group to the outcome of the control group |
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Term
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Definition
-Focus on characterizing morbidity and mortality in a population by person, place, or time without regard to causal or other hypotheses
-4 types |
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Term
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Definition
-Designed to test hypotheses about the association between an exposure of interest and a particular outcome
-Designed to test hypothesis about the association between an exposure of interest and a particular outcome |
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Term
| 4 Types of Descriptive studies |
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Definition
1. Case reports
2. Case series
3. Ecologic
4. Cross-Sectional |
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Term
| 5 Types of Analytic Studies |
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Definition
-Ecological
-Cross-Sectional
-Case-Control
-Cohort
-Hybrid |
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Term
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Definition
-Unit of analysis of a group vs. individual
-Summary measure for exposure and outcome
-Relatively inexpensive
-May use existing data sources
-Possibility of ecologic fallacy
-"error of reasoning"
-Ex. Flouridated water
-can be analytic |
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Term
| Types of Ecologic Studies |
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Definition
-Exploratory
-Multiple group Comparison
-Time Trend Studies
-Mixed Studies |
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Term
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Definition
-Ecologic
-Descriptive
-Exposure not assessed
-Singular issue assessed
-Examines spatial patterns |
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Term
| Multiple Group Comparison |
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Definition
-Ecologic
-Test associations between average exposure levels and overall outcome rates |
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Term
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Definition
-Ecologic
-Detect changes in the average exposure level and outcome rates for a single population over time |
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Term
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Definition
-Ecologic
-Examine the changes in average exposure level and outcome rates for several populations over time
-Multiple-group comparison and time trend |
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Term
| Types of Cross-Sectional Studies |
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Definition
| -Analytic (yes Hypothesis) and Descirptive (No hypothesis) |
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Term
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Definition
-Classification of subjects according to their outcome status
-Cases are selected for outcome
-Controls selected do not have the outcome
-Both groups examined for exposures of interest
-Positive association occurs when exposure is significantly greater among cases than controls |
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Term
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Definition
-Prospective (present and future)
-Retrospective (past and present) |
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Term
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Definition
-Unit of analysis is a group
-Selection of the participating communities
-Collection of baseline data on the study
outcome
-Assignment and application of the community intervention
-Follow-up, outcome assessment and evaluation
-USed to evaluate interventions aimed at reducing exposure |
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Term
| Randomized Controlled Trials |
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Definition
-selection of an appropriate study sample
-Random allocation of subjects into experimental and control groups (random assignment)
-Follow-up and outcome assessment
-very strong structures |
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Term
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Definition
| -Focus on individuals without the study disease (stage of susceptibility) |
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Term
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Definition
-High risk individuals
-stage of pre-symptomatic disease |
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Term
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Definition
-Patients with existing disease or disability
-Stage of clinical disease or diminished capacity |
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Term
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Definition
-Statistical synthesis of the data from separate but similar studies
-Process of using statistical methods to combine the results of different studies
-No original data used
-Quality and quantitative component
-Formulates problem and finds relevant studies
-Excludes poor studies
-Measures and combines results |
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Term
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Definition
| -illness, disease, injury, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| -Constant presence or usual frequency of a specific disease in a given community |
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Term
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Definition
-an epidemic on a grand scale
-causes illness over very extensive areas and crossing international border |
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Term
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Definition
-Quantitative data concerning human life
-Death rate
-Birth rate
-marriage/divorce |
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Term
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Definition
| Diseases that must be reported |
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Term
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Definition
-Birth/death certificates
-Done by physician/Mortician and filled out on form
-Immediate cause of death
-Antecedent cause of death
-Underlying Cause of death |
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Term
| Communicable Disease (infectious) |
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Definition
| -Can be transmitted directly or indirectly to a susceptible person through contact, inhalation and ingestion |
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Term
|
Definition
-promotes general health
-risk factor reduction
-Preventative care |
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Term
|
Definition
-Focuses on early detection
-Swift treatment of disease
- Purpose is to cure disease, slow progression, or lessen impact |
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Term
|
Definition
-Involve therapy and rehab
-Measures once disease is established
-Tries to extend life and lessen effects |
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Term
|
Definition
-Involved in producing immunity to a disease
-Formed defensive response to foreign pathogens entering body |
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Term
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Definition
-Stimulate from anitbodies
-Specific to a particular invading substance |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when the body produces antibodies in response to an infection or vaccine |
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Term
|
Definition
Acquired by:
Injection of serum
Placental transfer
Breastfeeding
-immediate |
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