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| new words are created. These are called neologisms eg. wugs. |
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words from other languages are borrowed (aka loan words) eg:
Italian – soprano; French – prince, restaurant; German – lager. Borrowing often occurs when a new idea or product is introduced eg. Russian ‘vodka’. |
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| words added by using prefixes and suffixes eg. microwave, multimedia, sexism, ageism, Watergate and Camillagate. |
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| combination of existing words to make one new word which refers to a specific person, object, etc, eg. laptop, blackbird, blue-eyed. |
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| only parts of existing words are blended together to create new words eg. smog, slanguage, motel (motor + hotel). |
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| a mild or inoffensive way of describing something distasteful or unpleasant. New euphemisms are constantly been invented eg. in business a lack of money is a ‘cashflow problem’, redundancy is known as ‘downsizing’. In modern warfare, bombing raids are called ‘surgical strikes’. Other examples are ‘collateral damage’ (civilian casualties). |
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| ‘Hawks and doves’ refers to politicians favouring war and peace respectively as well as birds. ‘Onion bag’ refers to the net of a goal in football as well as a bag containing onions. |
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| Words lose some of their orginal force and strength eg. ‘soon’ used to mean ‘immediately’, but now means in the near future. |
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| Commonly used phrases constructed from existing words eg. ‘in the doghouse’, ‘under the weather’ and ‘wake up and smell the coffee’ is a more recent example suggesting that people should get in touch with reality. |
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| A drive to remove words which are considered offensive or demeaning to social minority groups eg. ‘people with learning difficulties’ (formerly mentally handicapped) and ‘mixed race’ replaces ‘half-caste’. |
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| The semantics becomes less favourable eg. ‘cowboys’ connotes dishonesty as in ‘cowboy builders’ and ‘impertinent’ once meant ‘irrelevant’ but now means ‘rude’. |
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| The semantics becomes more pleasant and positive eg. ‘pretty’ once meant sly and cunning, but not means attractive and ‘wicked’ used to mean evil and now means superb, brilliant. |
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| Broadening or Generalisation |
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| Meaning of a word broadens as well as taking on new meaning eg. ‘holiday’ originally meant Holy Day symbolising religious importance. ‘Dog’ originally meant only one type of dog. |
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| (determiner, modifier and a head noun): for example – the bright blue sky, red clouds, a nice juicy apple. |
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| (start with a preposition (relationship word)) eg. in the morning, on the playground, at noon, after tea (these often act as adverbials of time or place within a sentence because they tell you when or where something happens. |
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| (strings of verbs) eg. I am going to go to the cinema tonight. |
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| Interrogative (question): |
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| Exclamatory (dramatic/urgent in tenor and an exclamation mark at the end) |
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does not include a main verb or follow a classical pattern. Often used in journalism and media texts (eg. film reviews), for example:
Stammer Horror. No impediment to Oscar glory. |
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| A simple sentence consists of a one subject and predicate formation (one main clause – |
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a clause must always contain a verb element). For example:
The flu jab shortages must be investigated. |
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| A compound sentence -consists of at least two main clauses of equal value, which are linked by either a semi-colon or the co-ordinating conjunctions, ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’. |
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For example:
Ben Jonson wrote superb essays and scholars read them. |
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| A complex sentence consists of at least one main clause (which could grammatically and semantically stand on its own) and one dependent or subordinate clause (which could not grammatically or semantically). For example: |
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(When Jose handed in his essay), he forgot to give in the last page. Sub. Cl.
Jose forgot to give in the last page, when he handed in his essay. Sub. Cl.
Fred and Ginger went home (after they finished dinner). |
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| Compound-complex sentences contain at least two independent main clauses (IMCs) and a subordinate clause eg. |
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| David read a book and made some notes (whilst drinking a cup of tea). Sub cl. |
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| Modal auxiliary verbs (helping verbs which always go before a main verb). |
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| Should, will , could ,may |
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| names of groups of people, animals, etc – eg. Parliament, committee, jury, flock |
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| common nouns which deal with intangible issues eg. thoughts, feelings, emotions, joy, love. |
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| names of objects you can physically see or touch – eg. sun, desk, window, book, etc. |
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| all other naming words eg. desk, chair, joy. |
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| names of specific people/places/objects with capital letters eg. Derby, Psychology, Dave, etc. |
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