synthesized from tyrosine and tryptophan, not lipid soluble

Tyrosine derivatives - thyroid hormones produced by thyroid gland and epinephrine and norepinephrine

Tryptophan derivatives - melatonin produced by pineal gland

chains of amino acids, not lipid soluble

1. Glycoproteins - thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

2. Short polypeptide chains - ADH, oxytocin

Small Proteins - growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) 

Includes all hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, heart, thymus, digestive tract, pancreas, and neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), and most hormones from adenohypophysis

Eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid, 20-carbon fatty acid, lipid soluble

Steroid Hormones, derived from cholesterol

eicosanoids released by activated white blood cells, leukocytes

important in coordinating tissue responses to injury or disease

eicosanoids, produced in most tissues

primarily in coordinating local cellular activities

In some tissues, converted to thromboxanes and prostacyclins

released by male and female reproductive organs

androgens by testes

estrogens and progestins by ovaries

calcitriol by kidneys

ADH

oxytocin

regulatory hormones

Adenohypophysis

(anterior pituitary)

FSH

LH

ACTH

TSH

PRL

GH

MSH

Neurohypophysis

(posterior pituitary)

Thyroxine (T4)

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Calcitonin (CT)

Suprarenal Medulla

(adrenal medulla)

Epinephrine (E)

Norepinephrine (NE)

Suprarenal cortex

(adrenal cortex)

Cortisol,

corticosterone,

aldosterone,

androgens

Monitor circulating concentration of calcium ions

When Ca2+ falls below normal, it secretes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Brain Natriuretic peptide (BNP)

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Calcitriol

Insulin

Glucagon

Androgens (testosterone)

Inhibin

Estrogens

Progestins

Inhibin

Epinephrine and norepinephrine (beta receptors)

Calcitonin

Parathyroid Hormone

ADH, ACTH, FSH, LH, TSH

Glucagon

Epinephrine and norepinephrine (alpha 1 receptors)

Oxytocin

Regulatory hormones of hypothalamus

Several eicosanoids

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone

(TSH)

Glycoprotein

released from the adenohypophysis and targets the thyroid gland and triggers the release of thyroid hormones

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

(ACTH)

Derived from pro-opiomelanocortin

released by the adenohypophysis and stimulates the release of steroid hormones from cells that produce glucocorticoids in the suprerenal cortex (adrenal cortex), most notably cortisol

Stimulates transfer of stored cholesterol to the mitochondria, to stimulate binding of cholesterol to cytochrome P450, and to activate cholesterol demolase

pulsatile and diurnal secretory pattern

Inhibited by excess cortisol

Follicle-stimulating Hormone

(FSH)

released by adenohypophysis

promotes follicle development in females, stimulates the secretion of estrogens by ovarian cells (*estradiol)

stimulates nurse (sustentacular) cells in males - specialized cells in the tubules where sperm differentiate

Inhibited by the peptide hormone, inhibin, released by cells in the testes and ovaries

Luteinizing Hormone

(LH)

released by adenohypophysis

induces ovulation and promotes secretion of estrogens and progestins in females

sometimes called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) because it stimulates the production of sex hormones, androgens, by the interstitial cells of the testes in males

Prolactin

(PRL)

released by lactotrophs in the adenohypophysis

works with estrogen and progesterone to stimulate mammary gland development 

stimulates milk production during pregnancy and during the nursing period

helps androgen production in males by making the interstitial cells more sensitive to LH

Inhibits ovulation by inhibiting synthesis and release of GnRH

inhibited by the neurotransmitter, dopamine which decreases cAMP levels

stimulated by TRH

Growth Hormone 

(GH)

synthesized in the somatotrophs of the anterior pituitary, also called somatotropin

Secreted in a pulsatile pattern, largest burst within 1 hour of falling asleep

Uses cAMP and IP3/Ca2+ mechanisms

Diabetogenic

stimulates cell growth and replication by accelerating the rate of protein synthesis, skeletal muscle cells and chondrocytes (cartilage cells) are particularly sensitive to it

Increases lipolysys

inhibited by somatostatin, and somatomedins

GH stimulates synthesis and release of somatomedins, which increase the rate of uptake of amino acids and their incorporation into new proteins

Liver cells, skeletal muscle fibers, cartilage cells

GH stimulates stem cell divisions and differentiation of daughter cells, whose growth are stimulated by somatomedins

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone

(MSH)

secreted by the pars intermedia in the adenohypophysis during fetal development, in very young children, in pregnant women, and in the course of some diseases

stimulates melanocytes of the skin, increasing their production of melanin, a brown, black, or yellow pigment

Antidiuretic Hormone

(ADH, vasopressin)

manufactured by the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus and travel down to neurohypophysis

Nonapeptide, has preprohormone then prohormone

released in response to rise in the solute concentration of blood or a fall in blood volume or blood pressure

primary function is to increase the water permeability of principal cells in the late distal tubule and collecting duct, via V2 receptor that uses adenylyl cyclase mechanism to insert AQP2 channels

Causes contraction of vascular smooth muscle via V1 receptor and IP3/Ca2+ mechanism

at high concentrations, can cause vasoconstriction to elevate blood pressure

inhibited by alcohol, alpha-adrenergic agonists, and ANP

Between the cuboidal follicle cells and basement membrane in the thyroid gland

produce Calcitonin (CT)

Decreases Ca2+ concentration in the body fluids, by inhibiting osteoclasts and stimulation of Ca2+ excretion at the kidneys

stimulated directly by increased Ca2+ concentration of blood

Inhibited by drop in Ca2+

Parathyroid Hormone

(PTH)

increases Ca2+ concentration in body fluids by

increasing release of a growth factor, RANKL, which increases osteoclast numbers

enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at the kidneys

stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol at the kidneys, which enhance Ca2+ and PO43- absorption by the digestive tract

Outer region of adrenal cortex

produces mineralcorticoids

**Aldosterone

stimulates conservation of sodium ions by targeting kidneys, sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas and the elimination of potassium ions

stimulated by rise in K+ concentration mainly or by drop in Na+ content, blood volume or blood pressure

exhibits diurnal pattern

Angiotensin II increases synthesis and secretion by stimulated cholesterol desmolase and hormone synthase

Released by Zona Glomerulosa, through angiotensin II using IP3/Ca2+ mechanism

Acts on principal cells and alpha-intercalated cells

produces glucocorticoids

stimulated by ACTH from adenohypophysis and secretes primarily cortisol and smaller amounts of corticosterone

Epinephrine

Norepinephrine

Stimulated during sympathetic activation by sympathetic preganglionic fibers

increases cardiac activity, blood pressure, glycogen breakdown, blood glucose levels; releases lipids by adipose tissue

Works on alpha and beta receptors in tissues

pinealocytes synthesize this hormone from serotonin

Inhibits reproductive functions by reducing the rate of GnRH secretion

Protects against damage by free radicals, antioxidant

Sets circadian rhythms

lowers blood glucose levels by increasing the rate of glucose uptake and utilization, and by increasing glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles and the liver

stimulated by parasympathetic 

inhibited by sympathetic

produces a peptide hormone identical to growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GH-IH)

Secrete Somatostatin

Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone

(GH-IH)

Pancreatic Polypeptide

(PP)

secreted by the kidney

stimulated by PTH

stimulates calcium and phosphate ion absorption along the digestive tract

stimulates formation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts

stimulates bone resorption by osteoclasts

stimulates calcium reabsorption at the kidneys

suppresses PTH production

peptide hormone released by the kidney

stimulated by low oxygen levels in kidney tissues

stimulates production of red blood cells by bone marrow

released by juxtaglomerular cells 

stimulated by sympathetic stimulation, a decline in renal blood flow

converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

secreted by heart cells

stimulated by increased blood volume 

promote the loss of sodium and water at the kidneys

inhibit renin release and the secretion of ADH and aldosterone

suppresses thirst

prevent angiotensin II and norepinephrine from elevating blood pressure

peptide hormone produced by adipose tissue

creates sense of satiation and suppression of appetite

acromegaly

Before puberty, gigantism

After puberty, increased periosteal bone growth, increased organ size, increased hand and foot size, enlargement of the tongue, coarsening of the facial features, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance

Treated with somatostatin analogues (octreotide)

Causes central diabetes insipidus, because posterior pituitary is unable to secrete it

Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, principal cells of he colecting duct are unresponsive due to a defect in the V2 receptor, Gs protein, or adenylyl cyclase

Causes excess water reabsorption by the collecting ducts diluting body fluids, causing hyponaturemia

Treated with demeclocyline or water restriction

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin

(hCG)

resembles LH, maintains the integrity of the corpus luteum and promotes continued secretion of progesterone

Absence, Pregnancy ends

synthesized in the paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary

Stimulated by suckling, dilation of the cervix, orgasm, and conditioned responses

Produces milk "letdown" from the lactating breast by stimulating contraction of myoepithelial cells lining the milk ducts

Inhibited by Opioids (endorphins)

Human Placental Lactogen

(hPL)

peptide hormone

secreted by the placenta and corpus luteum during pregnancy

increases the flexibility of the pubic symphysis

causes the dilation of the cervix

suppresses the release of oxytocin by the hypothalamus and delays the onset of labor contractions

glucocorticoid secreted by zona fasciculate of the adrenal cortex

Stimulated by CRH from hypothalamus to corticotrophs of anterior pituitary which secrete ACTH

Diurnal and pulsatile pattern

Lowest secretory rates during the evening hours just after falling asleep

Increases Gluconeogenesis, diabetogenic

Increases protein catabolism

Increases lipolysis

Decreases insulin sensitivity

Anti-inflammatory

Suppresses Immunity

Up regulates catecholamine receptors, causing vasoconstriction

Inhibits bone formation

Increases GFR

Increases awake time

Corticotropin Releasing Hormone

(CRH)

polypeptide

secreted by cells of the paraventricular nuclei of the hypothlamus

Acts on corticotrophs by adenyly cyclase/cAMP mechanism to secrete ACTH

Inhibited by increased serum cortisol

Used in persons with hypercortisolism

ACTH secreting tumor - low dose does not suppress cortisol secretion but high dose does

Adrenal cortical tumor - no dosage suppresses cortisol secretion

Hypertension

Hypokalemia

Metabolic Alkalosis

Hypotension

Hyperkalemia

Metabolic acidosis

Secreted by Zona Reticularis

Converted to testosterone in the testes

Responsible for development of pubic and axillary hair and libido in females

Primary adrenocortical insufficiency

caused by autoimmune destruction of all zones of the adrenal cortex leading to deficiencies in cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens

Hypoglycemia, anorexia, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, and weakness

hyperkalemia metabolic acidosis, and hypotension

decreased pubic and axillary hair and decreased libido

Hyperpigmentation due to high levels of ACTH which contains the alpha-MSH fragment

Treatment includes glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement

Decreased ACTH, which decreases cortisol secretion

Normal aldosterone levels

Hypoglycemia, anorexia, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, weakness

Chronic excess of glucocorticoids

Primary defect in adrenal cortex, which is overproducing cortisol. 

Low levels of ACTH

Hyperglycemia, increased proteolysis and muscle wasting, central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, poor wound healing, osteoporosis, and striae

Excess androgens cause virilization and menstrual disorders in females

Cortisol secretion is not suppressed by any dose in dexamethasone test

Primary defect in anterior pituitary, which is overproducing ACTH

High levels of ACTH

Hyperglycemia, increased proteolysis and muscle wasting, central obesity, round face, supraclavicular fat, buffalo hump, poor wound healing, osteoporosis, and striae

Excess androgens cause virilization and menstrual disorders in females

Cortisol secretion suppressed by high dose dexamethasone

Primary hyperaldosteronism

Caused by an aldosterone-secreting tumor

Hypertension, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis

Decreased circulating renin levels

Treatment - aldosterone agonist, spironolactone

Most common enzymatic defect/deficiency

converts progesterone to DOC

converts 17-hydroxyprogesterone to 11-deoxycortisol

Deficiency results in lack of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and increased production of adrenal androgens leading to virilization in females

increased unrinary 17-ketosteroids

elevated ACTH levels

converts pregnenolone to 17-hydroxypregnenolone

progesterone to 17-hydroxyprogestone

deficiency leads to lack of glucocorticoids and adrenal androgens resulting in lack of pubic and axillary hair in females

Increased levels of mineralcorticoids causing hypertension, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis

Decreased levels of aldosterone

converts pregnenolone to 17-hydroxypregnenolone

progesterone to 17-hydroxyprogestone

deficiency leads to lack of glucocorticoids and adrenal androgens resulting in lack of pubic and axillary hair in females

Increased levels of mineralcorticoids causing hypertension, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis

Decreased levels of aldosterone

secreted by delta cells of islets of Langerhans

inhibited by insulin

inhibits insulin and glucagon via paracrine actions

stimulated by ingestion of all forms of nutrients