Term
| endocrine glands and hormones secrete biologically active molecules into the ___; they lack ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| endocrine glands and hormones carry hormones to target cells that contain specific ___ for that hormone. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| endocrine glands and hormone target cells can _____. |
|
Definition
| respond in a specific fashion |
|
|
Term
| ____: chemicals released by a cell in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones affect ___ of target organs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones help regulate ____, ___, and ____ |
|
Definition
| total body metabolism, growth, reproduction |
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|
Term
| specialized ___ secrete chemicals into the blood rather than the synaptic cleft. chemical secreted is called ___. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 chemical classifications of hormones |
|
Definition
1) amines
2) polypeptides and proteins
3) glycoproteins |
|
|
Term
| ___: hormones derived from tyrosine and tryptophan |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: chains of <100 amino acids in length, such as ADH |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: polypeptide chains with > 100 amino acids, such as growth hormone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____: long polypeptides (>100) bound to 1 or more carbohydrates |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones can also be divided into: |
|
Definition
1) polar (hydrophilic)
2) nonpolar (lipophilic) |
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|
Term
| Polar: glycoproteins ___ be taken orally, and are ___. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Nonpolar: steroids __ be taken orally; and are ___ |
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Definition
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|
Term
| water insoluble hormones can ____ into target cells |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Steroids are ___ derived from ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| steroids are ___ hormones (___) |
|
Definition
| lipophilic; (can gain entry into target cells) |
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|
Term
| ____ secreted in adrenal cortex |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| thyroid hormones are ___ and ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ pathways for steroid hormones |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| common aspects of neural and endocrine regulation; ___ are chemical events produced by diffusion of ions through neuron plasma membrane. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| common aspects of neural and endocrine regulation; action of some hormones are accompanied by ___ and ___ in the target cell |
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Definition
| ion diffusion; electrical changes |
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|
Term
| nerve axon boutons release _____ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| some chemicals are secreted as ___, and are also ___ |
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Definition
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|
Term
In order for either a NT or hormone to function in physiological regulation:
1) target cell must have ___
2) combination of the regulatory molecule with its receptor proteins ___.
3) there must be a ___ of a regulator |
|
Definition
1) specific receptor proteins
2) must cause a specific sequence of changes
3) mechanism to quickly turn of the action |
|
|
Term
| hormonal interactions are said to be ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| two hormones ____ to produce a result |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: each hormone separately produces response; together at same concentrations they stimulate an even greater effect. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| two common additives: ___ and ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: each hormone stimulates different step in the process |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| two common complementary hormones: ___ and ___ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 possible effects of hormonal interactions: |
|
Definition
| permissive effects; antagonistic effects |
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|
Term
| ___: hormone enhances the responsiveness of a target organ to second hormone |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| permissive effects increases the ___ |
|
Definition
| activity of a second hormone |
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|
Term
| ___: action of one hormone antagonizes the effects of another. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin and glucagon express ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ in blood reflects the rate of secretions of tissue |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the half life of a hormone is the: |
|
Definition
| time required for the blood concentration of hormone to be reduced to 1/2 reference level (basal) |
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|
Term
| ____ are produced only when the concentration of the hormone are present within physiological range. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| varying the concentration of the hormone within normal, physiological range can affect the ____ |
|
Definition
| responsiveness of target cells |
|
|
Term
| two effects of [hormone] on tissue response |
|
Definition
| priming effect (upregulation) and desensitization (downregulation) |
|
|
Term
| ___: increase number of receptors formed on target cells in response to a particular hormone. |
|
Definition
| priming effect (upregulation) |
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|
Term
| the priming effect leads to a ____ |
|
Definition
| greater response by the target cell |
|
|
Term
| ___: prolonged exposure to high [polypeptide hormone]. |
|
Definition
| desensitization (downregulation_ |
|
|
Term
| in desensitization; subsequent exposure to the same [hormone] produces ___; ___ in number of receptors on target cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ may prevent downregulation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones or same chemical class have ____ |
|
Definition
| similar mechanisms of action |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) location of cellular receptor proteins depends on the chemical nature of the hormone
2) events that occur in the target cells |
|
|
Term
| to respond to a hormone, the target cell must have ___ |
|
Definition
| specific receptors for that hormone (specificity) |
|
|
Term
hormones exhibit:
___ - bind to receptors with high bond strength
___- low capacity of receptor binding |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ and ___ are attached to plasma carrier proteins |
|
Definition
| lipophilic steroids; thyroid hormones |
|
|
Term
| these hormones _____ component of the target plasma membrane |
|
Definition
| dissociate from carrier proteins to pass through lipid |
|
|
Term
| receptors for the lipophilic hormones are known as ___ |
|
Definition
| nuclear hormone receptors |
|
|
Term
| steroid receptors are located in ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| the cytoplasm; in the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| nuclear hormone receptors function within the cell to ____ |
|
Definition
| activate genetic transcription |
|
|
Term
| ____ directs synthesis of specific enzyme proteins that change metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each nuclear hormone receptor has 2 regions: |
|
Definition
1. a ligand (hormone) binding domain
2. DNA binding domain |
|
|
Term
| nuclear hormone receptor must be activated by ____ before binding to specific region of DNA called ____ |
|
Definition
| binding to hormone; HRE (hormone responsive element) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adjacent to gene that will be transcribed |
|
|
Term
Mechanisms of steroid hormone action:
1) ___ binds to steroid hormone
2) translocates to ___
3) DNA binding domain binds to ___
4) ___ occurs
5) stimulates ____ |
|
Definition
1. cytoplasmic receptor
2. nucleus
3. specific HRE of the DNA
4. dimerization
5. transcription of particular genes |
|
|
Term
| ___: process of 2 receptor units coming together at the 2 half sites |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dimerization involves a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism of thyroid hormone action; ___ passes into cytoplasm and is converted to ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action:
1. __ binds to ligand binding domain
2. other half site is _____
- ____ can then bind to ___
3. two partners can bind to the ___ to activate ___
-stimulate _____
- is a ___ |
|
Definition
1. T3
2. vitamin A derivative
- DNA; the half site of the HRE
3. DNA; HRE
- transcription of genes
- heterodimer |
|
|
Term
| hormones that cannot pass through plasma membrane (___) use ___ |
|
Definition
| (hydrophilic); 2nd messengers |
|
|
Term
| catecholamine, polypeptide, and glycoprotein hormones bind to ____. |
|
Definition
| receptor proteins on the target plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| actions are mediated by ____ |
|
Definition
| 2nd messengers (signal transduction mechanisms) |
|
|
Term
| ___ are transduced into intracellular 2nd messengers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
adenylate cyclase-cAMP
1) polypeptide or glycoprotein hormone __ receptor protein causing dissociation of a subunit of ___
2) G-protein subunit ____
- ATP -> __ + ___
3) ____ to inhibitory subunit of protein kinase
4) inhibitory subunit dissociates and activates ___ |
|
Definition
1) binds to; G-protein
2) binds to and activates adenylate cyclase
- cAMP+PPi
3) cAMP attaches
4) protein kinase |
|
|
Term
| adenylate cyclase-cAMP ___ enzymes within cell to produce hormone's effects |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| adenylate cyclase-cAMP; ___ activity of enzymes present in the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| adenylate cyclase-cAMP; alters __ of the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| phosphodiesterase __ cAMP to inactive fragments |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Phospholipase-C-Ca2+
1) binding of ___ to __ in plasma membrane activates a g-protein intermediate, ____.
- this intermediate splits ___ into ___ and ___. both derivatives serve as 2nd messengers
2) ___ diffuses through cytoplasm to ER
- binding of ___ to receptor protein in ER causes ___ channels to open |
|
Definition
1)epi; alpha adrenergic receptor; phospholipase C
-phospholipid; IP3; DAG
2) IP3
- IP3; Ca2+ |
|
|
Term
| Ca+2 diffuses into the ___, and binds to ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| calmodulin activates specific _____; alters ___ of the cell, producing __ effects |
|
Definition
| protein kinase enzymes; metabolism; hormone's |
|
|
Term
| ___: enzyme that adds phosphate groups to proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tyrosine kinase (insulin receptor) consists of __ units that __ when they bind with insulin. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin binds to ___ site on plasma membrane; activating ___ in the cytoplasm |
|
Definition
| ligand-binding; enzymatic site |
|
|
Term
| ___ occurs, increasing tyrosine kinase activity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| TrK activates signaling molecules; stimulate ___, ___, and ___ synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| TrK activates signaling molecules; stimulates insertion of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ uses TrK 2nd messenger systems to stimulate glucose uptake in liver and glycogen synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ hydrolyzes glycogen and secretes glucose...activates different ____ |
|
Definition
| glucagon; different 2nd messenger systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pituitary gland is located in the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pituitary gland is structurally and functionally divided into the ___ and ____ |
|
Definition
| anterior lobe; posterior lobe |
|
|
Term
| anterior pituitary aka ___ aka ___ |
|
Definition
| adenohypophysis; master gland |
|
|
Term
| posterior pituitary aka ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the anterior pituitary is derived from a pouch of ____ that migrates upward from the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the anterior pituitary consists of two parts: |
|
Definition
| pars distalis and pars tuberalis |
|
|
Term
| ___: thin extension in contact with the infundibulum |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___: formed by downgrowth of the brain during fetal development |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| posteror pituitary is in contact with the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ extend through the infundibulum |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| anterior pituitary hormones have ___ effects |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
pituitary hormones:
___ causes target organ to hypertrophy
____ causes target organ to atrophy |
|
Definition
| high blood [hormone]; low blood [hormone] |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary is ___ rather than ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary; hypothalamus neurons ___ and ___ hormones |
|
Definition
| synthesize 'releasing'; 'inhibiting' |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary; hormones are transported to ____ |
|
Definition
| axon endings of median eminence |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary; hormones secreted into the ____ regulate the secretions of the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system |
|
|
Term
| posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus: ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin); oxytocin |
|
|
Term
| antidiuretic hormone promotes the ____ by the kidneys; ___ is excreted in the urine. |
|
Definition
| retention of H2O; Less H2O |
|
|
Term
| oxytocin stimulates ___ during parturition; and stimulates ____alveoli. |
|
Definition
| contractions of the uterus; contractions of the mammary gland (milk-ejection reflex) |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamus neuron cell bodies produce ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
___:supraoptic nuclei
___: paraventricular nuclei |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hypothalamus neuron cell bodies are transported along the _____. |
|
Definition
| hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamus neuron cell bodies are stored in the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hypothalamus neuron cell body release controlled by ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| anterior pituitary and hypothalamic secretions are controlled by ___ |
|
Definition
| the target organs they regulate |
|
|
Term
| anterior pituitary and hypothalamic secretions are controlled by ___ at target gland hormones |
|
Definition
| negative feedback inhibition |
|
|
Term
the negative feedback occurs at two levels;
1) the target gland hormone can act on the ___ and inhibit secretion of releasing hormones.
2)the target gland hormone can act on the ___ and inhibit response to the releasing hormone |
|
Definition
1) hypothalamus
2) anterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis; secretion of thyroxine from thyroid is stimulated by ___, which comes from ___ |
|
Definition
| TSH from anterior pituitary, TRH from the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| negative feedback effect; stimulation balanced by thyroxine induced _____ |
|
Definition
| reduced responsiveness to TRH |
|
|
Term
| short feedback loop: retrograde transport of blood from ___ to the ___. |
|
Definition
| anterior pituitary; hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| hormone released by ___ inhibits secretion of releasing hormone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| positive feedback effect: during the menstrual cycle, estrogen stimulates ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| axis refer to a relationship between ___ and a ____ |
|
Definition
| anterior pituitary; particular target gland |
|
|
Term
| ___ receives input from higher brain centers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are paired organs that cap the kidneys |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| each adrenal gland consists of an ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| outer cortex; inner medulla |
|
|
Term
| the ___ is derived from embryonic neural crest ectoderm (the same tissue that produces the sympathetic ganglia) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the adrenal medulla secretes ____ (___) |
|
Definition
| catecholamines (mainly Epi but some NE) |
|
|
Term
| the adrenal medulla is innervated by ____; "___" |
|
Definition
| preganglionic sympathetic axons; fight or flight |
|
|
Term
the adrenal medulla:
HR?
respiratory rate?
blood vessels?
glycogenolysis?
lipolysis? |
|
Definition
increases HR and cardiac output
increases respiratory rate
vasoconstrict blood vessels, thus increasing venous return.
stimulates glycogenolysis: the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
stimulates lipolysis: hydrolysis of fats into fatty acids and glycerol |
|
|
Term
| the adrenal cortex does not receive ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the adrenal cortex must be stimulated ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 zones of the adrenal cortex: |
|
Definition
zona glomerulosa
zona fasciculata
zona reticularis |
|
|
Term
| the adrenal cortex secretes ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the zona glomerulosa produces ___; which ___ |
|
Definition
| mineralcorticoids (aldosterone); stimulate kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+ |
|
|
Term
| the zona fasciculata secretes ___; which ___ |
|
Definition
| glucocorticoids (cortisol; hydrocortisone); inhibit glucose utilization and stimulate gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| the zona reticularis produces ___; which ___ |
|
Definition
| sex steroids (DHEA); supplement sex steroids |
|
|
Term
| the adrenal cortex contains simplified pathways for ____. |
|
Definition
| steroid hormone synthesis |
|
|
Term
| glucocorticoids released by the zona fasciculata inhibit ___ and stimulate ___ (__) |
|
Definition
| glucose utilization; glucogenesis (raises blood glucose concentration_ |
|
|
Term
| cortisol is released in response to ___ and ___ in blood |
|
Definition
| stress; low [glucocorticoids] |
|
|
Term
3 primary functions of the adrenal cortex:
1) increase ___
2) suppress the ___
3) aid in ____ metabolism |
|
Definition
1) blood sugar (homeostasis
2) immune system
3) fat, protein, and carbohydrate |
|
|
Term
| hypersecretion of corticosteroids (ACTH) results in ___ due to ___ or ___ |
|
Definition
| Cushing's syndrome; anterior pituitary oversecretion; tumor of adrenal cortex |
|
|
Term
| ___ gland is located just below the larynx |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| thyroid is the ___ of the pure endocrine glands. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| thyroid secretes ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| thyroxine (T4); triiodothyronine (T3) |
|
|
Term
| thyroid secretions are needed for ___ and for determining ___ |
|
Definition
| proper growth; basal metabolic rate |
|
|
Term
| follicular cells secrete ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parafollicular cells secrete ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T4 is transported in ___, with 99.95% of the secreted T4 being ___, principally to ___ |
|
Definition
| blood; protein-bound; thyroxine-binding globulin |
|
|
Term
| T4 is involved in controlling the rate of ___ in the body and influencing ____. |
|
Definition
| metabolic processes; physical development |
|
|
Term
| thyroxine is a ___, and a reservoir for the _____ |
|
Definition
| prohormone; active thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3). |
|
|
Term
| ___ is about four times more potent then ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T4 is converted in the tissues by ___ to T3 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Actions of T3:
stimulates ___
promotes ____
stimulates rate of ___
increases metabolic ___ and ____ |
|
Definition
protein synthesis
maturation of nervous system
rate of cellular respiration
heat and rate |
|
|
Term
T3 stimulates rates of cellular respiration by:
production of ___
increase ___
lower ____ |
|
Definition
| production of uncoupling proteins; increase active transport by Na+/K+ pumps; lower cellular [ATP] |
|
|
Term
| T3 increases metabolic rate by stimulating ____ |
|
Definition
| increased consumption of glucose, fatty acids, and other molecules |
|
|
Term
| diseases of the thyroid: in the absence of sufficient iodine, cannot produce adequate amounts of T4 and T3; leads to ___ |
|
Definition
| iodine deficiency (endemic) goiter |
|
|
Term
| the ___ are embedded in the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the only hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands |
|
Definition
| parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
|
|
Term
| PTH is the single most important hormone in the control of ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the parathyroid glands are stimulated by ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the parathyroid glands promotes rise in blood [Ca2+] by acting on ___, ___, and ___ |
|
Definition
| bones, kidney, and intestines |
|
|
Term
| the parathyroid glands act to increase ___ in blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ produced by thyroid increases bone [Ca2+] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| PTH also increases ___ production for gut absorption |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) secretes 2 hormones: ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin ___ blood [glucose]; and glucagon ___ blood [glucose] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
alpha cells secrete ____
stimulus is ___
stimulates ____
which stimulates ____ |
|
Definition
| glucagon; decreases in blood [glucose]; stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis; which stimulates coversion of fatty acids to ketones (energy stores) |
|
|
Term
beta cells secrete ___
stimulus is ____
promotes entry of ___
Converts ____
Aids entry of ____ |
|
Definition
| insulin; increase in blood [glucose]; glucose into cells; glucose to glycogen and fat; amino acids into cells |
|
|
Term
| insulin stimulates cellular uptake of ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ to its receptor activates signaling molecules to mobilize vesicles containing Glut 4 proteins to the plasma membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ permit the facilitated diffusion of glucose from the extracellular fluid into the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucose is used for ___ production following its oxidative phosphorylation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin uses TrK 2nd messenger systems to simulate ___ in liver and ___ synthesis. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ hydrolyzes glycogen and secretes ___ |
|
Definition
| glucagon (pancreatic hormone_; secretes glucose |
|
|
Term
| Type 1 diabetes is due to ____ |
|
Definition
| destruction of beta cells (no insulin) |
|
|
Term
| Type 2 diabetes is due to ____ |
|
Definition
| decreases tissue sensitivity to the effects of insulin (need more insulin) |
|
|
