Term
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Definition
| Either explicitly or implicitly asserting within the premise of an argument what is asserted in the conclusion of that argument |
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Term
| Question-Begging Language |
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Definition
| Discussing an issue by means of language that assumes a position on the very question at issue, in such a way as to direct the listener to that same conclusion |
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Term
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Definition
| Formulating a question in a way that inappropriately presupposes that a definite answer has already been given to an unasked question, or a series of questions |
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| Question-Begging Definition |
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Definition
| Using a highly questionable definition, disguised as an irrefutable empirical premise |
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Definition
| Drawing a conclusion from inconsistent or incompatible premises |
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| Contradiction Between Premise and Conclusion |
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Definition
| Drawing a conclusion that is incompatible with at least one of the premises |
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Definition
| Denying the antecedent of a conditional statement and then inferring the denial of the consequent |
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Term
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Definition
| Affirming the consequent of a conditional statement and then inferring the affirmation of the antecedent |
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Definition
| Reversing the antecedent and the consequent of a conditional statement or exchanging the subject and predicate terms in a universal affirmative statement |
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Definition
| Evaluating a thing in terms of its earlier context and then carrying over that evaluation to the thing in the present while ignoring relevant changes that may have altered its character in the interim |
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Definition
| Using plausible-sounding but usually fake reasons to justify a particular that is held on other, less respectable grounds |
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| Drawing the Wrong Conclusion |
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Definition
| Drawing a conclusion other than the one supported by the evidence presented in the argument |
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Term
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Definition
| Attempting to support a claim with reasons other than the reasons appropriate to the claim |
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Term
| Appeal to Irrelevant Authority |
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Definition
| Attempting to support a claim by appealing to the judgment of an unidentified authority, or one that is likely to be biased |
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Term
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Definition
| Urging the acceptance of a position simply on the grounds that a large number of people accept it or urging the rejection of a position on the grounds that that very few people accept it |
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Term
| Appeal to Force or to Threat |
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Definition
| Attempting to persuade others of a position by threatening them with an undesirable state of affairs instead of presenting evidence for one's view |
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Term
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Definition
| Attempting to persuade others of a point of view by appealing to their feelings of reverence or respect for a tradition instead of to evidence especially when a more important principle or issue is at stake |
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Term
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Definition
| Urging an opponent to accept or reject a particular position by appealing solely to his or her personal circumstances or self-interest, when a more important issue is a stake |
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Term
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Definition
| Attempting to persuade others to accept a position by exploiting their emotions instead of presenting evidence for the position |
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Term
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Definition
| Directing another person toward an unwarranted conclusion by making a word or phrase employed in two different senses in an argument appear to have the same meaning |
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Term
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Definition
| Directing another person toward an unwarranted conclusion by presenting a claim or argument that uses a word, phrase, or grammatical construction that can be interpreted in two or more distinct ways |
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Term
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Definition
| Directing another person toward an unwarranted conclusion by placing improper or unusual emphasis on a word, phrase, or particular aspect of an issue or claim, sometimes by taking another argument purposely out of context |
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Term
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Definition
| A listener's inferring from another's claim by improperly placing unusual emphasis on a word or phrase in the speaker's statement |
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Term
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Definition
| Directing another person toward a particular usually derogatory conclusion by a skillful choice of words that implicitly suggests but does not assert that conclusion, nudge nudge. |
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Term
| Misuse of a Vague Expression |
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Definition
| Attempting to establish a position by means of a vague expression or drawing an unjustified conclusion as a result of assigning a precise meaning to another's word or phrase that is imprecise in its meaning or or range of application |
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Term
| Distinction Without a Difference |
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Definition
| Attempting to defend an action or position as different from another one, with which it might be confused, by means of a careful distinction of language, when the action or position defended is no different in substance from the one from which it is linguistically distinguished |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that small movements or differences on a continuum between a thing and its contrary have a negligible effect and that to make definite distinctions between points on that line is impossible or at least arbitrary |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that what is true of a whole is therefore true of each of the parts of that whole |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that what is true of the parts of a whole is therefore true of the whole |
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Term
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Definition
| Restricting too severely the number of proposed alternative responses to a problem or situation and assuming that one o the suggested alternatives must be true or the right one |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that because something is now the practice, it ought to be the practice. Conversely, assuming that because something is not now the practice it ought not be the practice |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that because one wants something to be true, it is or will be true. Conversely, assuming that because one does not want something to be true, then it is not or will not be true |
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Term
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Definition
| Misapplying a principle or rule i a particular instance by assuming that it has no exceptions. Conversely, attempting to refute a principle or rule by means of an exceptional case. |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they necessarily are alike in some other important respect, while failing to recognize the insignificance of their similarities and or the significance of their dissimilarities |
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Term
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Definition
| Drawing a conclusion or generalization from too small a sample of cases |
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Term
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Definition
| Drawing a conclusion based on data from an unrepresentative or biased sample |
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Term
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Definition
| Arguing for the truth (or falsity) of a claim because there is no evidence or proof to the contrary or because of the inability or refusal of an opponent to present convincing evidence to the contrary |
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Term
| Contrary-to-Fact-Hypothesis |
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Definition
| Treating a hypothetical claim as if it were a statement of fact by making a claim without sufficient evidence about what would have happened in the past if other conditions had been present or about an event that will occur in the future |
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Term
| Fallacy of Popular Wisdom |
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Definition
| Appealing to insights expressed in aphorisms or cliches, folk wisdom, or so-called common sense instead of relevant evidence for a claim |
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Term
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Definition
| Applying principles, rules, or criteria to another person while failing to apply them to oneself or to a situation that is of personal interest, without providing sufficient evidence to support such an exception |
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Term
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Definition
| Constructing and argument that fails to include key evidence that is critical to the support of the conclusion |
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Term
| Confusion of a Necessary and Sufficient Condition |
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Definition
| Assuming that a necessary condition of an event is also a sufficient one |
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Term
| Causal Oversimplification |
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Definition
| Oversimplifying the causal antecedents of an event by specifying causal factors that are insufficient to account for the event in question or by overemphasizing the role of one or more of those factors |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming that a particular event is caused by another simply because they follow one another in time |
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Term
| Neglect of a Common Cause |
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Definition
| Failing to recognize that two seemingly related events may not be causally related at all, but rather are the effects of a common cause |
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Term
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Definition
| Assuming, without appropriate evidence, that a particular action or event is just one, usually the first, in a series of steps that will lead inevitably to an undesirable consequence |
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Term
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Definition
| Arguing that because a chance event has had a certain run in the past, that the probability of its outcome in the future is significantly altered. |
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Term
| Denying the Counter Evidence |
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Definition
| Refusing to consider seriously or unfairly minimizing the evidence that is brought against one's claim |
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Term
| Ignoring the Counter Evidence |
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Definition
| Arguing in a way that ignores or omits any reference to important evidence unfavorable to one's position, giving the false impression that there is no significant evidence against it |
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Term
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Definition
| Attacking one's opponent in a personal or abusive way as a means of ignoring or discrediting his or her criticism or argument |
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Term
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Definition
| Rejecting a criticism or argument presented by another person because of his or her personal circumstances or improper motives |
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Term
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Definition
| Rejecting a criticism of one's argument or actions by accusing one' critic or others of thinking or acting in a similar way |
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Term
| Attacking the Straw Man Fallacy |
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Definition
| Misunderestimating an opponent's position or argument for the purpose of making it easier to attack |
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Term
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Definition
| Attacking an opponent's position by focusing critical attention on a minor point in the argument |
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Term
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Definition
| Attempting to hide the weakness of a position by drawing attention away from the real issue to a side issue |
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Term
| Resort to Humor or Ridicule |
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Definition
| injecting humor or ridicule into an argument in an effort to cover up an inability or unwillingness to respond appropriately to an opponent's criticism or counterargument |
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