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| examines biological, physical, psychological and behavioral changes that occur as we age. |
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| an age range during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally or along a certain path. |
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| optimal age range for certain experiences, but if those experiences occur at another time, normal development is still possible |
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| compare people of different ages at the same point in time |
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| repeatedly test the same cohort as it grows older |
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| combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs |
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| end of week 2 to end of wee 8 after contraception |
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| week 9 after conception until birth |
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| external agents that cause abnormal prenatal development |
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| fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
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| a group of severe abnormalities that results from prenatal exposure to alcohol |
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| automatic, inborn behaviors that occur in response to specific stimuli |
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| genetically programmed biological process that governs our growth. |
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| tendency for development to proceed from head to foot. |
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| development begins along the innermost parts and continues towards the outermost parts |
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| organized patterns of thoughts and actions |
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| the process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schema |
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| the process by which new experiences cause existing schema to change |
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understanding the world through sensory experiences and physical (motor) interactions with objects
-object permanence
-A NOT B task
-infants thoughts and actions nearly identical |
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| understanding that an object continues to exist even when it is no longer in sight |
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represent their world symbolically through words and mental images but do not yet understand basic mental observations or rules
-ages 2-7
-conservation
-egocentrism |
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| basic properties of objects stay the same even though their outward appearance may change |
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| difficulty in viewing the world from someone else's perspective |
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| concrete operational stage |
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can perform basic mental operations concerning problems that involve tangible objects and situations
-ages 7-12
-transitivity
-increase symbolic thought |
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able to think logically and systematically about both concrete and abstract problems, form hypothesis, and test them in a thoughtful way
-ages 12 and up
-ability to think abstractly |
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| zone of proximal development |
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| the difference between what a child can do independently and what the child can do with assistance |
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| person's beliefs about the "mind" and the ability to understand other people's mental states |
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| process by which we evaluate and modify our emotional reactions |
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| a biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviorally to the environment. |
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involves a different "crisis" over how we view ourselves in relation to other people and the world.
--erikson's psychosocial stages |
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| a sudden, biologically primed form of attachment |
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| the strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers |
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| distress over contact with unfamiliar people |
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| distress over being separated from a primary caregiver |
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| a standardized procedure for examining infant attachment--Ainsworth |
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| exert control but do so with a cold, unresponsive, or rejecting relationship |
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| warm, caring relationships with their children but do not provide the guidance and discipline that help children learn responsibility and concern for others |
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| proved neither warmth rules or guidance |
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| sense of "femaleness" or "maleness" that becomes a central aspect of one's personal identity |
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| the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of a person |
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| treating others differently based on whether they are female or male |
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| preconventional moral reasoning |
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| based on anticipated punishments or rewards |
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| conventional moral reasoning |
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| based on conformity to social expectations, laws and duties |
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| post conventional moral reasoning |
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| based on well thought out general moral principles |
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| vulnerability-stress model |
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| each of us has some degree of vulnerability for developing a psychological disorder given sufficient stress |
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| behavior that is personally distressing, dysfunctional, and or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive |
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| clinicians using the system should show high levels of agreement in their diagnostic decisions |
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| the diagnostic categories should accurately capture the essential features of the various disorders |
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| a defendant's state of mind at the time of the judicial hearing |
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| the presumed state of mind of the defendant at the time the crime was committed. |
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| state of tension and apprehension that is a natural response to perceived threat. |
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| the frequency and intensity of anxiety responses are out of proportion to the situations that trigger them, and the anxiety interferes with daily life |
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| strong and irrational fears of certain objects or situations |
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| fear of open or public places from which escape would be difficult |
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| excessive fear of situations in which the person might be evaluated or possibly embarrassed. |
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| fear of dogs, snakes, spiders, elevators, etc. |
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| generalized anxiety disorder |
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| chronic state of diffuse, or free-floating anxiety that is not attached to specific situations or objects |
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| occur suddenly and unpredictably and they are much more intense |
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| repetitive and unwelcome thoughts images or impulses that invade consciousness, are often abhorrent to the person, and are very difficult to dismiss or control |
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| repetitive behavioral responses that can be resisted only with great difficulty |
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| post-traumatic stress disorder |
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| a severe anxiety disorder that can occur in people who have been exposed to traumatic life events |
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| unacceptable impulses threaten to overwhelm the ego's defenses and explode into consciousness or action |
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| occur only in certain locales |
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| systematic desensitization |
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| learning based program/treatment for anxiety disorders |
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a new response that is incompatible with anxiety is conditioned to the anxiety arousing CS
-Mary Cover Jones (1924) helped a 3 year old unlearn his fear of rabbits |
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| the therapist pairs a stimulus that is attractive to the client with a noxious UCS in an attempt to condition an aversion to the CS |
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| treatment techniques that apply operant conditioning procedures in an attempt to increase or decrease a specific behavior |
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| judgements about the causes of our own and other people's behavior and outcomes |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| we underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the role of personal factors when explaining other people's behavior. |
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| the tendency to make personal attributions for success and situational attributions for failures |
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| our tendency to attach more importance to the initial information that we learn about a person |
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| a generalized belief about a group or category of people |
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| occurs when people's erroneous expectations lead them to act toward others in a way that brings about the expected behaviors, thereby confirming their original impression |
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| a positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus |
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| theory of planned behavior |
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| our intention to engage in a behavior is strongest when we have a positive attitude toward the behavior, when subjective norms support our attitudes and when we believe that the behavior is under control |
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| theory of cognitive dissonance |
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| (FESTINGER, 1957) people strive for consistency in their cognitions, change behavior or justify beliefs to reduce dissonance |
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| we make inferences about our own attitudes in much the same way: by observing how we behave |
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| how believable we perceive the communicator to be |
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| central route to persuasion |
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| occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling |
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| peripheral route to persuasion |
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| occurs when people do not scrutinize the message but are influenced mostly by other factors such as speakers attractiveness or a message's emotional appeal. |
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| shared expectations about how people should think, feel and behave |
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| consists of a set of norms that characterizes how people in a give social position ought to behave. |
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| informational social influence |
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| following the opinions or behavior of other people because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right |
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| normative social influence |
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| conforming to obtain the rewards that come from being accepted by other people while at the same time avoiding their rejection |
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| expectation that when others treat us well, we should respond in kind |
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| door-in-the-face technique |
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| a persuader makes a large request, expecting you to reject it, and then presents a smaller request |
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| foot-in-the-door technique |
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| a persuader gets you to comply with a small request first and later presents a larger request |
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| a persuader gets you to commit to some action and then-before you actually perform the behavior-he or she increases the "cost" of that same behavior |
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| demanding/threatening situations |
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| a pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses, and behavioral tendencies that occurs in response to a perceived imbalance between situational demands and the resources needed to cope with them |
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| the pattern of physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions to demands that exceed a person's resources--"fight or flight" |
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| general adaptation syndrome |
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| consists of 3 phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion |
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| help produce fever and inflammation, promote healing of injured tissue, and activate and direct other immune cells |
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| increase peoples susceptibility to stressful events |
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| environmental or personal resources that help people cope more effectively with stressful events |
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| people who tend to live under great pressure and demand much of themselves and others |
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| the belief that we can perform the behaviors necessary to cope successfully |
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| strategies attempt to confront and directly deal with the situation or to change the situation so that it is no longer stressful |
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| strategies attempt to manage the emotional responses that result from it. |
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| turning to others for assistance and emotional support in times of stress |
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| systematically detect, challenge, and replace these irrational ideas |
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| self-instructional training |
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| people learn to talk to themselves and guide their behavior in ways that help them cope more effectively |
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| somatic relaxation training |
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Definition
| provides a means of voluntarily reducing or preventing high levels of arousal |
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| a peaceful, mind clearing state |
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biologically and environmentally determined characteristics
account for distinctive and relatively enduring patterns of thinking, feeling and acting
understand our behavior and examine individual differences |
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frequently experience negative feelings such as anxiety, anger, and depression
emotionally reactive
most supported of the big 5 factors |
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enjoy being with people, are full of energy, ad often experience positive emotions
like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves |
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curious, appreciative of art, sensitive to beauty
aware of feelings
least supported of big 5 |
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value getting along with others
considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise |
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avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence
regarded by others as intelligent and reliable |
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| best achieved when authority figure is present |
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| most who are diagnosed with one disorder often meet criteria for one or more others |
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mixed results
brief stressors: more susceptible to viral but not bacterial infections |
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| clear negative impact on immunity |
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| no current impact on immunity |
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biologically determined process produces developmental change
-biology influences development |
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experience with environment produces developmental changes
-experience influences biology |
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| relationship between age of arrival in US and grammatical rules |
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| negative relationship: as age of arrival increases; knowledge of grammar decreases |
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both influence development, must co-occur at same time
-nature sets time window, nurture provides experience |
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research done with adults, not tested on kids
-doesn't replicate
-normal environment provided by caring parents is "enriched" |
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jean piaget
--theory of cognitive development
--focus on logical thinking
--stage theory of development (milestones for each age, each stage is foundation for next)
--not everyone agrees with piaget but everyone tends to agree with observations made |
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| newborn language perception |
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| come into world with some ability, able to perceive sounds but not produce |
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| young infants can distinguish all phonemes (not just native language) |
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13.5 months--first words
25-36 monts--gramar, two word utterances, add plurals, gets overused |
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| Vgotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development |
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Definition
Lev Vgotsky
--focus on social construction of thought
--internalization
--zone of proximal development |
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| when social factors become a part of the individual |
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freud, among others
--attachment to mother drive by biological needs (food) |
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| attachment theory--bowlby, comfort is the key |
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| rhesus monkeys separated from mothers |
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~70%
--when mom leaves cry, but when mom comes back they go to her and are comforted |
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| AVOIDANT insecure attachment |
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Definition
~20%
--not really affected by mom, avoid her |
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| AMBIVALENT insecure attachment |
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~10%
--push pull, get upset with mom leaves initially, when mom comes back initial attempt to be comforted but then they will want to do something else |
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| attachment differs between mom and dad |
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Definition
mom=security, comfort
-dad=fun |
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1. conform to group when situation is ambiguous and don't know how to behave (sherif's, 1936 study)
2. when it's important to be accurate (Baron et al. 1996, study) |
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1. social approval (Asch's 1956 classic study)
2. social roles (stanford prison study)
3. cognitive dissonance (festinger, 1957) |
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military recruits ordered to eat fried grasshoppers
--nice, well liked officer vs. unpleasant, strict officer |
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| diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders |
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pros: diagnosis is accurate, help determine type of theory needed
-cons: unrealistic to pigeonhole, categorization carries price--labeling |
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| --being sane in insane places, checked into mental hospital ("hear voices"), admitted to observation, then behaved as normal |
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| clinical symptoms of different disorders |
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| relevant biological/medical conditions |
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| social/environmental problems |
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| gloabl assessment of functioning |
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| rare, most serious psychopathological state, "split mind" blueler emphasized disordered thought and disintegration of though |
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| characteristics of schizophrenia |
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Definition
| disorders of cognition, social isolation, hallucinations, delusions, disturbance of affect--flat/inappropriate affect |
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| biological-psychological account, biological predisposition (genetic component that causes too much dopamine in frontal lobe), psychological/social stress that triggers onset |
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| causes of anxiety disorders |
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| may be genetic component--simple learning (classical conditioning) |
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"an act or instance of perforating the skull with a surgical instrument"--in order to let out "bad spirits"
--expanded consciousness due to increase in blood flow to the brain
--people who have holes drilled in their heads feel better afterwards (cognitive dissonance) |
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| treat abnormal like animals and criminals |
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| symptoms due to an underlying cause |
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therapy has some evidence to suggest that it works better than another therapy or better than doing nothing
--smith and glass (1977) people in therapy twice as likely to be better off after therapy than someone who isn't in therapy. |
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| therapy for schizophrenia |
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Definition
| medical intervention (antipsychotics) to reduce dopamine levels, must stay on meds, need social support |
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