an individuals capacity to:

- find and maintain a definite direction/purpose

- adjust strategy if necessary to achieve something

- evaluate/criticize that strategy so adjustments can be made

*called this our "IQ"

the aggregate/global capacity of an individual to act purposefully and to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment

1. act purposefully         

2. think rationally          

3. deal with environment

*Fluid Intelligence

vs.

**Crystallized Intelligence

*the ability to learn and problem solve (gets worse with age)

**the sum of what you know (gets better with age)

"g-factor" refers to general intelligence

"s-factors" refer to specific abilities unique to certain tests

Aptitude Test- designed to predict a person's future performance and the capacity to learn

Achievement Test- designed to assess what a person has learned

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS) Subtests

*Verbal

*Working Memory

*Processing Speed

*Perceptual Organization

Very Weird Men Playfully Send Painted Oranges

- prior testing

- medication

- educational history

- significant medical events (i.e. concussion)

-disabilites (i.e. vision)

*we aren't one intelligence, but many: linguistic, musical, spatial, logical, social

*criteria for intelligence domain

*limitations

- full range of competence

- localization and potential isolation by brain damage

-identifiable set of core operations (ex. perfect pitch applies only to music)

- has not led to any intelligence tests

- personality dimensions rather than intelligence

-practice vs innate abilities

-independence of intelligence

-Predictive ability of Intelligence- factors that affect it

*Pygmalion Effect

1. motivation,

2. prior-experience, and 

3. health affect academic performance

Pygmalion effect: random kids who were told they are smart did better on IQ test

Development:

Nature vs Nurture

nature: biologically determined maturation produces developmental change

nurture: experience w/environment produces developmental change

*combine through sensitive periods

Development

Sensitive Periods

time window where "best' development occurs

*nature sets time window

*nuture provides experience

Biology influences development(nature)

"Rich Rats Poor Rats" study:

-brains of rich rats had more/denser neurons

-could make more connections

*proves experience affects biology

1) poop

2) cry

3) suck

*preference for mom's voice, will suck harder at the sound of it

4 Stages = 4 diff chunks of time

1. Sensorimotor Stage

2. Preoperational Stage

3. Concrete Operational Stage

4. Formal Operational Stage

1. assimilation- perceiving or thinking about new objects in terms of existing knowledge

2. accommodation- changing knowledge based on new objects or events

- 0 to 2 yrs old

- thoughts and actions are identical

- object concept is the milestone

     - common sense beliefs about objects

     - object performance: realize that if you can't see it it still exists

- 2 to 7 yrs old

- emergence of symbolic thought/word explosion

- egocentric; have a hard time seeing things from other perceptions (3 mountains task)

- conservation task: understanding that objects stay the same when superficial aspects change (stretching out clay)

- 7 to 12 yrs old

- can perform mental operations, transitivity

ex. A < B, B < C, so A < C

- 12+ ages

- ability to think abstractly

- pinnacle of logical, scientific reasoning

Personality

Barnum Effect

- vague/general statement about personality that applies to nearly everyone

ex. horoscopes

- the biologically/environmentally determined characteristics w/in a person that account for distinctive and relatively enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

- we understand our behavior and examine individual differences: compare

Personality

Big 5 Factors

1) Openness

2) Conscientiousness

3) Extraversion

4) Agreeableness

5) Neuroticism

*Problems: does not explain why we are like that, does not measure all traits (ex. humor)

- frequently experience negative feelings

   *emotionally reactive

- interprets ordinary situations as threatening

- enjoys being w/ people

- full of energy

- likes to talk

Openness

(least empiracally supported)

- Curious

- Individualistic

- Aware of feelings

Agreeableness

(how you interact with people)

- value getting along

- considerate, friendly, generous

- ppl are basically honest, decent

- optimistic

- avoid trouble and achieve success

- regard others as intelligent and reliable

- downside = perfectionist, OCD, serious

1) Neuroticism decreases

2) Agreeablness increases (small)

3) Conscientiousness increases

4) Openness incr early in life, decr later

5) Extraversion is relatively stable

Person-Situation Debate

- ppl act the same in any situation vs changes personality to accomodate the situation

Situation debate: situation dictates behavior.

- personality measures lack predictive value

-i.e. if ur late for a mtg, ur less likely to help someone in need

Person debate: personality does exist

- combines measures of behaviors over time

- traits predictive of patterns of behavior, not instances

Social Development

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

*focused on social construction of thought

-Internalization

-Zone of Proximal Development

How do we know appropriate social behavior?

How do our personalities develop?

The gap between your current abilities and your maximum potential

-this is where the most changes occur

when social factors become part of the individual

(ex. using a pencil)

- the strong social-emotional bond between a child and a caregiver

- animals make attachments by imprinting

- "Cupboard Theory" and Attachment Theory

- Harlow's Studies

"Cupboard Theory"

vs

Attachment Theory

"Cupboard Theory"- attachment to mother is driven by biological needs (mostly food)

Attachment Theory- comfort is most important

   *supported by Harlow's studies

Rhesus monkeys raised by two different mothers- one was wire and provided food, the other was covered in cloth but gave no food

*monkeys wanted to be with the cloth mom

Attachment Patterns

Ainsworth's "Strange Situation": formal study of separation anxiety

Secure attachments(70%)- baby gets upset when mom leaves, is happy when mom comes back

Insecure attachment(avoident,20%)- baby doesn't care when mom leaves

Insecure attachment(ambivalent,10%)- baby gets really upset when mom leaves, stays mad when mom comes back

Mom = security, comfort

Dad = fun

*differences arise from parental play styles

- secure attachment at 15 mos= well adjusted by 3.5 years (outgoing, popular)

- influences baby's own parenting (Harlow's motherless monkeys = bad mothers themselves)

Social Psychology

*Important figures

- Charles Manson

- Patty Hearst

- Jim Jones

- David Koresh

- Marshall Applewhite

* they illustrate extreme conformity

attributes a person's behavior to internal states, not to the situation

*i.e. Patty Hearst: need to take into account the terrible situation she was in, not just that she was a terrible person who killed ppl

-Groups have expectations

- Norms permit social reliability and predictability (driving)

- Ambiguity- you don't know how to behave so you follow others

*more likely to conform when its important to be accurate

- ppl were told to evaluate the rate direction and amount of dot movement(dots weren't rlly moving)

- ppl combined their perceptions to agree on the same thing

- Implies we internalize group's beliefs, belief and behavioral change can be gradual

Baron's Eyewitness Identification Study

- participant performed task w/3 other fake participants

- fake part. gave obvious wrong answers

2 different studies: one he told them the study was very important, the other he told them its only a preliminary study

Results: more conformity in high importance group

Obedience

*Milgram's Experiment

- "teachers" were asked to shock the "learner" to test obedience

- His explanation for obedience: they had less responsibility, situational obligation, and science as a legitimate institution

Causes of conformity

- Informational influence- conforming bc we want to be correct

    - ambiguity or importance

- Normative Influence- conforming bc we want to be liked/accepted

1) Social Approval

2) Social Roles

3) Cognitive Dissonance

Causes of conformity

1) Social Approval

- don't want to go against the group

* Asch study: line comparing study

       - used confederates to give an obvious wrong answer

       - real participant often conformed to the wrong answer

       - presence of other ppl (even strangers) causes ppl to stress about fitting in and being liked

Causes of conformity

2) Social Roles

- we conform to expected behavior for a given role

- Zimbardo Prison Study

      - randomly split up group into "prisoners" and "guardsmen"

      - guards only instructions were to not let prisoners leave, but they started to exercise their power and give out punishments for noise, etc

       - implications: you can get lost in a social role and conform to the expectations of the role

Causes of Conformity

3) Cognitive Dissonance

- Festinger: evidence against our positive self image causes discomfort

- we are motivated to reduce dissonance

    a) change behavior (hard to do)

    b) justify behavior

    c) justify behavior by changing belief

- Zimbardy study with miliatry recruits

    - group asked to eat grasshoppers by mean sgt. said the grasshoppers tasted good

Criteria for a Mental Disorder

Syndromes (cluster of symptoms)

- subjective destress (feeling unhappy/dissatisfied)

- social/occupational dysfunction

- danger to self or others

* just one of these things can determine whether or not a person needs help

most who are diagnosed with one disorder often meet criteria for one or more others

* endogenous diagnosis: which one came first?

- unipolar: low mood, no manic episodes

- bipolar: at least one manic episode

- major depressive disorder (MDD)depressed mood, lost of interest/pleasure (anhedonia).

        - must have a depressive episode present all day for at least 2 wks

        - dysythymia: minor depressive

- Theory: Diathesis-Stress model

     - genetic predisposition(diathesis)

     - environment factors (stress)

- Treatment: biological (chemical imbalance)

               cognitive (cognitive-behavioral-therapy(CBT))

*Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

- standarized code for clinicians to diagnos a disorder

- effectiveness of CBT, interpersonal therapy, and drug herapy

    - CBT and drug therapy are equally effective

    - most severe patients responded best to drugs

    - 24% recovered and stayed well up to 2 yrs

    CBT patients had slightly lower relapse rates

Robins (1984) looked at admissions recorded from hospitals in large cities

- rates differed across conditions (anxiety - more frequently, eating disorders - less frequent)

- 33% of population @ some time in their life will meet criteria for a disorder

1. the abnormality is infrequent (statistically rare)

2. its deviant (violates social norms)

3. its maladaptive (harmful)

4. its unjustifiable

*there are problems with each of these individually, they need to be considered w/ a patient altogether

Pros: diagnosis is accurate and consistent

- can help determine type of therapy needed

Cons: unrealistic to pigeonhole (lose individuality and comorbidity)

- categorization= labeling (labeling causes discrimination, stereotypes)

Rosenhan

1. checked himself and other "normal" ppl into a mental hospital - they said they heard voices

2. they were admitted for observation

3. they acted normal, denying hearing voices

*they were diagnosed w/disorders and had a hard time getting released from the hospital

- the DSM puts symptoms into biological and social contexts with a multiaxial diagnosis

Axis I- clinical symptoms of different disorders

Axis II- long-term problems

III- relevant biological/medical conditions

IV- social/environmental problems

V- global assessment of functioning (how they're living)

History of Therapy

Trephaning

- drilling a hole in your head to release the demons that cause psychopathology

- used from thousands of years ago thru middle ages

- no attempt to cure, only to keep those who were diff out of mainstream society

- overt symptoms are due to underlying causes

1) underlying causes = somatogenic (biological or organic)

2) underlying causes = psychogenic (cause is psychological)

- to conduct studies of therapies to see which ones work

- a therapy needs evidence to suggest that it is better than another therapy or better than nothing

Eyserick did not believe all types of therapy worked or worked better than nothing, his idea led to E.V.

- the best way to control this disorder is through medical intervention (antipsychotics)

- important that patient keeps taking medicine

- schizo is a very rare, serious condition

- means "split mind"

- disordered thought and disintegration of thought

- behavioral therapies seem to work best

- abnormal behaviors are acquired same way normal ones are-through various forms of learning

- therapist acts as a trainer to unlearn odd behaviors and learn new ones

*Mary Cover Jones developed procedure called counterconditioning

1) relax patient/put them in an non-threatening environment

2) expose them to the object of their phobia

- type A ppl (chronically stressed/tense) are more likely to get heart disease than type B ppl (relaxed)

- can also affect every day factors like the cold

Cohen- studied where volunteers who were infected with cold virus =  more likely to develop colds if they had high stress leves

- social ties: how many friends/closeness to family

- high density social networds = less likely to develop a cold

- social ties helps immunity by boosting emotional support

      - writing about daily experiences can increase emotional support which will increase resistance to infection