L1:

What is the difference between migration and dispersal?

- migration: predictably back and forth movements, seasonal.

- dispersal: a unidirectional movmement, often with wandering between start and end.

L1:

What are the different types of dispersal?

- natal dispersal: movement between the site an individual is born at and where it first breeds.

- breeding dispersal: movement between one breeding site and another.

- postbreeding dispersal: the wandering movements some birds make after they finish breeding.

L1:

What are the long and shorter term influences of when migration occurs in birds?

- long: influenced by internal "clocks" (day length and perhaps weather).

- short: exact timing is influenced by the weather (flying in the direction they need to go: wind)

L1:

What are some possible reasons for why birds migrate at night?

1.) the atmosphere is more stable at night: no thermals.

2.) the air temperature is lower: thermoregulation is easier.

3.) predation risk may be lower.

L1:

What bird flies furthest during migration?

L1:

What are typical flight speeds for migration? What influences these?

- typical: 30 - 50 miles per hour.

- influenced by prevailing wind direction.

L1:

What altitude do most birds migrate at? Do they stay at one specific altitude?

- 1500 feet, though up to 20,000 feet (large soaring birds).

- adjust altitude during migration to maximize benefits of prevailing winds.

L1:

What are the general patterns of latitudinal migration and why (N. America vs. Europe)?

- N. America: N --> S (mirrors variation in climate patterns, geographic features that influence migration run in this direction [rivers, mountains]).

- Europe: E --> W (same reasons).

- some birds follow an elliptical pathway: this may be because it allows them to make the most of prevailing wind patterns and good feeding sites.

L1:

What are the five major types of migration?

1.) Latitudinal

2.) Elevational

3.) Molt

4.) Seabirds

5.) Irruptive movement

L1:

Why is seabird migration designated as unique?

- Many may move N --> S, but other routes are also used (E --> W across oceans).

- this is often because food availibility in oceans is not as dependable as it is on land, must follow it.

L1:

Why does irruptive migration have the erratic pattern it does? What types of birds use this migration?

- the degree of migratory movement can vary hugely from year to year.

- food supplies fluctuate wildly.

- finches, some owls.

L1:

What are the five advantages to migration?

1.) birds can take advantage of good feeding conditions elsewhere.

2.) nesting opportunities.

3.) avoidance of climate extremes.

4.) reduces interspecific competition during breeding season.

5.) allow birds to avoid parasites.

L1:

What are the disadvantages to migration (two)?

1.) energetically very costly.

2.) high risk associated with long flights.

L1:

Please discuss the origins of migration.

L1:

What are the advantages to using fat as fuel during migration?

1.) it produces more energy per gram than carb or protein.

2.) it produces a lot of water as metabolic by-product (avoid dehydration!).

3.) can be mobilized at low temperatures.

4.) easily stored without interfering with bird's aerodynamic shape.

L1:

What two physiological changes do birds undergo before migration to prepare?

1.) lay down fat stores for energy.

2.) reorgnization of their internal organs, reduce the size of some body parts in order to accomodate growth of other parts.

L1:

Why does migration make it difficult to organize protection for endangered birds?

L2:

What are the three major spacing patterns of bird populations and how do they effect social interactions?

a.) keep separated from eachother: territorial behavior.

b.) socialable and seek out grouping opportunities: flocking behavior.

c.) completely ignore what others are doing, respond to aspects of the environment that are mimportant to them.

L2:

Which other birds should a bird respond to?

- a bird should respond in whatever way maximizes the benefits it receives.

- a bird's needs are likely to be most similar to the birds that are most like it (same sp.)

+ this is why many species will flock in groups of their sp.

+ this is also why territorial birds defend territories against members of the same species.

L2:

Define "interspecific territoriality".

L2:

What four distinguishing features does a territory possess?

1.) a fixed area (fixed piece of land, or whatever area your mate that you are trying to avoid having EPC's)

2.) it is defended continuously.

3.) it is used only by the defending individual and sometimes their mates and offspring.

4.) ritualized displays, active aggression.

L2:

What is the fundamental benefit to territoriality?

L2:

Define "home range".

L2:

What are the costs of having a territory?

1.) energetically expensive.

2.) possibility of being hurt in aggressive interaction.

3.) conspicuous to predators.

L2:

When should a bird defend a territory? 

1.) when the benefits outweigh the costs.

2.) when access to it is limited (otherwise, no point). 

L2:

What are the benefits of being a member of a group (three)? 

1.) reduced predation risk.

2.) increased foraging success.

3.) improved thermoregulation (roost together). 

L2:

What are the costs of being a member of a group? 

1.) increased competition.

2.) may attract predators.

3.) a greater risk of disease/parasitism. 

L2:

What is neutral spacing? 

L3:

What are the two major deciding factors of what type of breeding system a species will have? 

1.) the mating system (the pattern of bond/pair relationships)

2.) means by which parental care is provided to the young. 

L3:

List the major constraints that decide the types of breeding systems that will be found in birds. 

1.) internal fertilization: male less invested in offspring: difficult for him to assure paternity.

2.) heterogamy: eggs are large/costly, sperm are small/cheap; there is a different amount of energy invested.

3.) high body temperature: baby chicks need LOTS of parental care --> this means polygamy is less likely.

4.) relatively big, helpless young: the more helpless (more parental care), the less likely polygamy is. 

5.) flight: reliance on flight --> reason why viviparity does not exist in birds. 

L3:

Define "pair bond".

L3:

Define "monogamous". 

- a relationship in which every bird has only one partner (usually per year).

- the majority of birds are socially monogamous (EPC's do not count). 

L3:

Define polygamous. What are the different forms of polygamy? 

- a relationship in which one individual has multiple mates.

- polygyny: one male several females.

-polyandry: one female several males.

- polygyandry: males/females form pair bonds with multiple members of the opposit sex. 

L3:

T/F

Each species has one specific kind of mating system that is the same across all members of the species. 

L3:

What is sequential polygamy? 

L3:

What type of breeding system is common in species with precocial chicks? 

L3:

T/F

Social monogamy and reproductive monogamy are dichotomous. 

TRU

it is possible for an individual to be socially monogamous and have families with mixed parentage. 

L3:

What are some sources of mixed parentage? 

1.) very aggressive male individuals (Mallards!!!1)

2.) females leave home for EPC's.

3.) nest parasitism.

L3:

What determines the form of polygamy a species will adapt (five)?

1.) Incentive (pays one parents to desert than the other; females usually have the greater investment to offspring because their eggs are $ and they are more sure of parentry).

2.) parental care costs (if more costly to one parent, that parent is more likely to desert.

3.) opportunity (males have better opportunity).

 4.) sex ratio (limiting sex should desert).

5.) resource availibility/distribution (polygamy in a great territory > monogamy in a bad territory).

L3:

A skewed sex ration often leads to polygamy. Polygamy will create competition among the non-limiting species and another characteristic may evolve among these competing individuals. What is this characteristic? 

- sexual dimorphism (this is usually male decoration). 

- "reversed" sexual dimorphism is female decoration. 

L4:

What are the three basic hormones involved in reproduction and their effects?

1.) FSH (follicle-stimulating): regulates gamete formation.

2.) Luteinizing hormone: regulates the secretion of hormones in the testes and development of mature ova.

3.) testosterone: increase may cause development of secondary sexual characteristics (breeding plumage, bill/foot colors, skin ornaments)

4.) estrogen 

L4:

What causes male gonad physical growth during the breeding season? 

L4:

Describe the hetero/homogametic system of birds sex chromosome. 

In birds (unlike humans):

- females are heterogametic (ZW).

- males are homogametic (ZZ). 

L4:

T/F

Can females store sperm? 

TRU (what?)

- in special tubes in their reproductive tracts. 

L4:

What are the benefits offered to birds by their oviparity? 

- can produce a large number of large offspring.

- provides a more efficient alternative to live birth: viviparity is not really an option because of flight. 

L4:

What is the general process of bird reproduction? What are some exceptions (two)?  

- touching their cloacas together (no external reproductive physiology). Many birds have elaborate, stereotyped post-copulation displays.

- exceptions:

a.) waterfowl with penises

b.) some birds with prolonged copulation

L4:

Where does fertilization occur?  

- occurs after ovulation in the oviduct.

- female bird's ability to store sperm enables them to have EPF without EPC after an initial copulation but before find 

L4:

When is the yolk added to the egg? What about other elements? 

- added while the ovum is stil in the ovary (prior to fertilization).

- after the yolk other elements are added: albumen, shell membranes, pigments for shells (respectively).

L4:

What major minerals make up egg shells? What kind of behavior does this spur in a female during breeding season?

- calcite and calcium.

- females may seek out environmental sources of calcium while readying to lay eggs. 

L4:

What are the elements and functions of the amniotic egg's membranes.

a.) chorion: membrane surrounding all embryonic structures.

b.) yolk sac: storage of energy for embryo development.

c.) amnion: a membrane surrounding the embryo.

d.) allantoic membrane: a pouch for waste storage while the embryo is developing.

L4:

What are the advantages to amniotic eggs (two)? 

- allow larger eggs to be formed (better thermoregulation).

- better gas exchange.

- structural support.

L4:

Define cleidoic. What are the advantages to this type of egg? 

- eggs with a rigid (calcareous) shell.

+:

- protects the embryo from invertebrate attacks.

- prevents egg desiccation.

-:

- cannot uptake water, must contain all water from the time the egg shell closed until hatch. 

L4:

 What are the basic elements of the amniotic egg and their purposes?

- yolk: nutrition and energy

- albumen: source of water and a protective layer that cushions the embryo/buffers temperature fluctuations

- shell: made of calcite/calcium, and a.) protects egg while developing as well as b.) provides the embryo with a source of calcium for bone growth c.) allows gas and water vapor passage via pores.

L4:

Do larger species have only physically larger eggs, or eggs that are larger in proportion to their body as well, than smaller species? 

L4:

Define a "clutch". What are the different types of clutch sizes? 

- a clutch is a group of eggs laid together at the same time.

TYPES:

- fixed clutch size: if any eggs are destroyed/eaten/fail, another will be laid to maintain a certain number.

- determinant: birds lay a fixed number of eggs and no more. 

L4:

Egg pigments may be energetically expensive to some degree. How do we know this? 

L4:

Give some examples of egg forms that serve a specific purpose. 

- Pyriform eggs: pointed eggs.

--> these serve to pack together well and save space in shorebirds.

--> this also serves to make eggs roll in circles, not lines, for birds with nests on cliffs. 

L4:

What are some adaptations that develop in birds while they brood a clutch of eggs? 

- brood patch: loss of feathers on their belly

- skin thickening

- development of fluid below the surface of the skin.

- increased vascularization of belly skin.  

L4:

What are some alternatives to incubating eggs by sitting on them? 

L4:

What is the hormone prolactin a regulator of? 

- it regulated incubation behavior. 

- this may be via interactions with testosterone (inhibiting an inhibitor; testosterone inhibits parental care behavior). 

L4:

What is asynchronous hatching? What is the opposite practice? Which is more common? 

- asynchronous hatching: some species begin incubation right after each egg is laid; this leads to chicks that are at different developmental stages in the same nest.

- synchronous hatching: incubation does not begin until all eggs have been laid.

Synchronous is more common. 

L4:

In some hot climates, the aim of thermoregulating eggs is to cool them. What are some methods used in this aim? 

- shade them from the sun.

- wet feathers and cool them with water. 

L4:

What are the purposes behind turning eggs in one's nest? 

- even warming.

- avoidance of embryo from becoming stuck to wall of egg. 

L5:

What are nests used for?

- attracting mates

- insulation

- predator protection

- chick storage! 

L5:

What are some actions that birds can take to maintain a conducive microclimate in their nests? 

- nest placement (shade, near a body of water)

- direction the cavity entrance faces.

- nest architecture (materials). 

L5:

What techniques of nest construction can offer innate protection?

- using specific plants to build a nest can reduce parasite load.

- building a nest near other animals that will help them in nest defense. 

L5:

T/F

Nest construction is an entirely genetic behavior. 

FALSE!

it is largely genetic, but aging birds display increased skill with age.