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A form of behavior modification using operant conditioning principles. In a token economy, every time the patient displays the desired behavior, he is awarded a token (such as a star or a coin) that can be traded for a physical possesion or special priviledge.

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Pedagogy is the art of teaching. It encompasses different styles and methods of instructing.

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Instructional theory focuses on how to structure material to best teach students, especially young ones. This approach can be divided into two general approaches: cognitive and behavioral.

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Critical pedagogy seeks to instruct students in how to recognize and rise up against oppression. This area of teaching is influenced by the works of Karl Marx.

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A princple proposed by Edward Thorndike stating that behaviors with positive outcomes will be repeated in the same situation, while behaviors with negative outcomes will be avoided in the same situation. Basically, behaviors with positive will be repeated and those with negative ones will be avoided.

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Direct instruction involves the teacher systematically leading the students step by step to a particular learning goals. This type of teaching is best for learning math or other complex skills, but not for less structured tasks such as English composition.

Academic Learning Time

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Academic Learning Time is the amount of time the student spends focused on his studies when he is successful at learning the material.

Scheduled Time is the total length of the class. Allocated Time is the amount of the class time devoted to teaching. Engaged Time is the amount of Allocated Time each individual student spends focused on the class. Academic Learning Time is the amount of Engaged Time spent well.

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A method of pedagogy where the teacher actively looks for ways to improve the students' knowledge of a subject. Ways of doing this include actively presenting concepts, checking to see if the students understand, and reteaching any trouble areas for the students.

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In generative learning, the teacher encourages the students to find their own meaning in learning. The teacher will show relationships between the new subject matter and past learning and will encourage the students to have confidence in their own ability to make these connections.

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According to researcher Benjamin Bloom, students with individual tutors generally perform two standard deviations (two "sigmas") above those in average classrooms.

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A norm-referenced test measures an individual student's score relative to those of a representative group of students. Norm-referenced tests are used to rank students based on their skill levels compared to their peers.

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A criterion-referenced test measures a student's mastery of a particular skill or understanding of a certain concept. The purpose of a criterion-referenced test is to measure whether a student has achieved a certain learning objective.

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Instruction refers to all sources that contribute to a student's learning. This term includes the teacher, the textbook, the principal, and any others who promote education.

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According to Carroll's Model, learning is a function of the ratio between the effort needed to the effort spent learning (learning=f[time spent/time needed]).

The five elements that influence the quality of learning are aptitude (the student's ability), ability to understand instruction (the student's prerequisite knowledge), perseverance (how much time the student devotes to learning), opportunity (the amount of time the student has to learn), and quality of instruction (how well the teacher presents the material).

The Eight Phases of Learning

Acronym: AERSERFR ("Air Surfer")

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Proper learning occurs in eight stages: attention (alertness), expectancy (the belief in the value of learning; provides motivation), retrieval of relevant information (taking prerequisite information out of long-term memory), selective perception (focusing on the key ideas in the subject; the teacher can ask questions to see if the students are on track), encoding (storing the information into long-term memory), responding (using the knowledge in different applications), feedback (determining if the prior learning was sufficient), and retrieval (recalling the learned information at a later time).

Mastery Learning

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Allowing each student to reach full mastery of a concept, regardless of how long it takes.