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| The study of how organisms interact with the natural world |
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| A collection of living and non living components tied together by regual interactions |
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| Three general principles of ecological systems |
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1. They are physical entities
2. They exchange materials and energy with their surroundings
3. They undergo evolutinary change |
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| Ecological systems are physical entities menaing |
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1.They follow the physical properties and chemical reactions of matter
2. dont alter physical or chemical properties |
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| Systems exchange materials and energy with environment |
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1. inputs equal outputs
2.Maintain steady state even with continuing flux of material and energy |
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| Systems undergo evolutionary change |
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Adaptation: structure and function evolve
Natural selection: only those well suited and reproduce; survive |
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1. studies natural history and catalogs variety
2. observes patterns and process
3. Questions why and how things operate |
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| What are the two stages to hypothesis testing? |
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| Descriptive Stage and the Functional state |
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| How is the scientific method used? |
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| Observation; gives image of the real world; hypothesis; predictions; testing; to theory |
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| What are the three types of experiments in ecology? |
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1. Lab: precise measurement and control; limited scale and scope
2. Field: info from natural world; some experimental manipulation: Natural world: gives good realism but there is no regulation, manipulation or control
3. Theorectical models |
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| unit upon which selection operates |
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| place or physical setting in which an organism lives. having conspicuous physical features and a dominant life living within it. |
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resourse use by one indiviual reduces availability to tohers
INTRA specific-within the species
INTER specific-between species |
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-a range of conditions occupied
-no two species share a niche
-each has specific form and function
-niches overlap leads to competition |
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| many organisms of the same kind living together |
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| many populations of different species living togeher |
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| assemblages of organisms together with their physical environment |
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| the global ecosystem all organisms and environments on earth |
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| Dtuding individual species ecologists look at |
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| individuals and populations |
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| When studing multiple species |
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| you look at communities and ecosystems |
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| When studing ecosystem exchanges you look at |
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| lanscape, regions and biosphere |
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| Size and scale of research |
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Spatial: space
Temporal: time
Effort: replication |
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| Most studies conducted are |
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| on individuals, small time frame |
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| physical non living factors of the environment; moisture, temp light etc |
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| factors of environment that ar living or the result of biological activity; ex competition, pathogens, nitrogen fixing bacteria |
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| The two relms of the natural world |
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biotic and abiotic
both influence distribution of species, abundance, diversity and adaptation. |
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| the environmental gradient in which a species is best suited for growth or reproduction |
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| Ways to find optimal range of a species |
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Definition
Physiological optimum- in lab
Ecological optimum- observed in field |
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| Liebigs law of the Minimum |
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Definition
distribution of a species will be controlled by the environmental factor for which the organism has the narrowest range of tolerance
Ex: Diatom growth: too little silicate or phosphate, growth stops. the lowest relative level regulates population size.
Applies only when resources have indipendent influence on growth |
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interaction greater than the sum
Light and soil fertility in plants
light and fertilized soil much greater than the sum of the two |
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| Featurs that impact plant growth in Hawi |
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Definition
trade winds
orographic rainfall and rain shadows
solar radiation
temp
erosion
volcanism/disturbance
soil characteristics |
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| What is so special about Hawii biomes? |
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Definition
| out of the 10 mentioned, Hawii has 8; the largest number in such a small area |
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| NE side is the windward side; |
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| What is the rain shadow effect? |
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Definition
| When elivation of a object is too high for clowds to go over; one side of object will be wet, the other dry: in a rain shadow. |
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| Hawiian terrestrial communities |
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| high diversity; 90% of plants are native; |
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| just beyond salt spray; arid and mesic |
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| Dry forest and shrublands |
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| mostly in leeward rain shadow area |
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| very high species diversity; high elevation |
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| great amount of rain higher elivation |
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| old calderas on mountain tops |
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| Sub alpine wood shrubland |
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| above rain fall inversion |
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| a reversible physiological or strucrual change in responce to environment; short duration; example thicker fur osmotic concentration |
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| genetically determined characteristic that enhances the ability or an organism to cope with environment; long time frame; example CAM photosynthesis and wing length |
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Ocean sunsfish: ions in water out; drinks saltwater, urinates little to get rid of ions; activly exports Cl passivly exports NA
Freshwater sunfish: Water in Ions out; drinks little; pees diluted urine; active inports Cl and Na |
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| migrates between salt and freshwater |
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| moves from salt to fresh water to reproduse; ex salmon, sturgeion and striped bass |
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| move from fresh water to salt water for reproduction; americal eel |
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| Genetic factors influence survival and fecundity. |
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higher reproductive sucess have higher fitness
causes proportion of genotypes to increase
mechanisim for adaptation |
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| Components of fitness: that lead to better adaptivness critical to environmenal conditions |
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Definition
1. mortality of juveniles
2. mortality of adults
3. viability(ability to exploit habitat)
4. mating sucess
5. fecundity: # of gametes
6. fertility: # of offspring |
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| Three types of natural selection |
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Definition
| Stabalizing; directional; disruptive |
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| Inermediate phenotypes; reduce variation; unchanging environments |
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| favors one extreme phenotype; from a gradually changing environment |
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| favors both extreme phenotypes; increases genetic and phenotypic variation; if strong enough can cause speciation |
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| maintenance of a constant internal condition; can be physiological (biochemical level), morphological(shape, size) , anatomical (internal structure), or behavioral (migration) |
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| constant internal conditions |
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| internal conditions vary with external conditions |
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| constant body temp: warm blooded animals |
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| body temp vary with environment; cold blooded |
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| external sources of heat used |
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| internal sources of heat used: metabolism |
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| organisms with wide tolerance ranges: |
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| organisms with narrow tolerance ranges |
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1. seek proper environment; migratiion, microsite selection, annualism
2. adjust internal environment: regulation of ion concentration in fish; mangroves.
; modify body structure; surface area of ears/ intestines; dry feces in kangaroo rats; counter curent exchange in fish gills; cross current o2 absorption in bird lungs |
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| osmotic adjusment; grow in estuaries; roots exclude salt; and leves expell salt via glands |
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changes in body structure that exhibit patterns of gradual change over distance
represent genetic adaptation to environmneal change; als represent growth limitations not heritable |
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different population of a species that have gentec differences; color size physiology
genetically and phenotypically distinct due to local and environmental adaptation |
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test difference among plants from different locations
different forms called ecotypes |
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warm blooded animals are bigger in cold areas
Wing variation |
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| warm blooded vertebrates have longer limbs relative to body size in warmer areas |
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indivuals with pheotypes that closely resemble habitat structure have higher fitness;
insect leaf and stick mimics sit and wait preditors |
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| In mimicry there are two players |
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Definition
the mimic shits to imitate the modle; causing the model to continue adapting
Coevolution- adation of one species influence the evolution in an unrelated species |
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Butterflies: Brightly colored species often mimicked; distastefull to preditors
Example:Monarch feeds on milkweed and is toxic; and Vicery is the mimic |
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Definition
| fitness of model is reduced by presence of mimic and shifts phontype away from mimic; mimic evolves to keep up; |
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| many species that are poisnous mimic each other; all benifit; species cooperation |
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occurs when the adaptation fo a subset of organisms in a species reproducivly isolate that subset genetically from the rest of the species
Sticklebacks: Limnetic stay at surface; benthic bottom;
mate and offspring are in the middle cant compete well in either habitat; dont survive |
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| all oganisms that live in an area and the physical environment |
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energy intake- energy expanded
ex. Volume of nectar - time flying - time eating - energy to heat body=energy budget |
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Can be researched from soil profile around water areas using a sediment core;
Ecotone: transition from one ecosystem to another; evolutionary change of ecosystem |
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| vegitation associated with climate |
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| Predictable climat variation |
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| uneven heating of the earth because spherical shape and the tilt of the earth on its axis |
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results from interaction between climate, organisms, toporaphy and parent material.
Geographic distribution of biomes corispond to variation in climate |
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| O loose plant litter; A mineral soil and plant matter organics leached down; B Depositional deposits from A; C Parent material weathered rock |
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| Uneven hating, heating of earht surface and atmosphere drives circ; sun heats air at equator it rises and cools; dry air falls drawing moisture from air desert. Corolis effect wind flows west/right in northern hemisphere |
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explore relationship btwn vegitation and climat
x-month
y-temp
z-percip |
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| 2.10 Tropical Rain forests |
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Definition
| warm and wet all year precip above 100 mm per month, little temp variation, close to equator |
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| alternating wet and dry seasons; fire from lightning storms help maintain grassland and scattered trees; along the tropic ofd cancer and capricorn |
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| seasonal drout, moderate temp variation |
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| Temp falls increase precipfrom low to high elivation |
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| adaptation of species to habitat over time is considered an ecotype: localy adapted and genetically distinct populations |
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| plant transfered to different site same species different growth at new site indicated genetic variation among population |
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| Interation of environment and local landscape produce a microclamatic variaation in temp |
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| For an individual organism |
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| their microclimate is more significant than the whole |
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| Most species perform best in narrow temp range |
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Definition
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| How do organisms compensate for temp variation of environment |
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they modify behavior, morphology
Resting stage: winter hybernation and summer estivation |
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| Salt water fish: hyposmotic and fresh water are hyperosmotic |
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| result from both genes and environment |
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| Changes in gene frequancy in a population |
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Definition
matin at random in absence of evolutionary forces allele freq will be constant.
Constante allele freq: random mating; no mutation; larg population; no immigration; equal survival and reproduction rates |
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| result of survival and reproduction among phenotypes |
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| favors two or more extreme phenotypes over the average; leads to increase in phenotypic diversity |
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| Evolution via natural selection |
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| phenotypic variation is due to genetic variation ; environment determines; populations can adapt to conditions |
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| Random process in evolution |
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| genetic drift; natural disasters can change gene freq in small populace |
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| 4.14 Multiple pathways for heat exch |
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Definition
Plants use morphology to adapt to environment
heat gain;losses: radiation; metabolism; convection; conduction; evaporation |
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| 4.15 form and orientation of desert plants |
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Definition
| reflective leaves; high convective leaves; low conductive ground; leves moved parellel to sun; open growth to increase wind |
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| Dark pigmented leves; compact growth; densly packed and ground hugging; leves are perpendicular to sun |
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| 5.23,24,25,27 desert animals |
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| feed at night, remain motionless, resting place cooler than ambient air; use of evaporative cooling (cicadia) |
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| increase mortality by allocating more energy to reproduction; adult survival comes from delayed maturity; GSI weight*freq of spawning/weight |
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| Adapting to environment over generations; color of fish change depending on amount of preditors; low color moved to low pred area after generations increased color; reproductive sucess depends on color of male |
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| mate choice by one sex and or competition for mates can result in selection for particular traits |
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| one sex consistantly chooses based on a particular trait |
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| more than on generation living together, cooperative care of young; division of indiviuals into sterile; nonreproductive and reproductive castes |
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| smaller: increases numbers of offspring |
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| reproduction is early and greater energy goes into reproducing |
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| one mates with many females; each female only one male; 2% birds, red wingned black birds, sage grouse, northern harriers; territory correlated to male reproductive sucess; common with patch resource distribution; marsh and grass habitats; |
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| one female mates with many; males only one; males give parental care; fewer than 1% of birds; evolved in 2 orders Gruiformsers (common moorhen) and Charadriformers (red phalarope, spotted sandpiper); may be related to fitxed clutch size (4eggs); method increased clutch size |
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| both sexes mate with many; both give parental care; 6% of birds; cooperative breeders share responsibility of care; (acorn woodpeckers, pinyon jays) |
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| varies; 50% of young produced by maiting outside the pair; benifits to men increased fitness, allows to find other mates, insurance with female infertility; Females insures against male fertility, genetically diverse young and multiple males help to feed. |
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| the stages of growth maintanance and reproduction that an individual goes through from birth to death |
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Directly influenses fitness-(size of offspring and age of reproductionss)
Indirect influence fitness(color) |
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| CChange in life histroy are caused by |
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Definition
| changes in allocation of energy between growth, maintaince and reproduction |
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| Traits that increase fitness |
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Definition
survival through reproductive age
high fecundity at reproductive age and early in life
longer reproductive lifespan
earlier age of first reproduction |
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| all offspring produced in a single event; all energy is expended; favored by stable, predictable environments |
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| Iteroparity trout/steelhead |
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Definition
offspring are produced multiple times during a lifetime; energy is spred out; timing important
early reproduction, less growth, lower surviroship, more children
late; more growth greater surviroship, less children; favored by unstable non predictable environments |
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| Different life histories in species |
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Definition
Parental males: resources to growth
satellites sneakers: devote to reproduction |
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| young, dont defend territories, circle and dart to release spirm |
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| intermediate age, mimic color and behavior of males; follow female and release sperm at same time that parental male |
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Hooks- large males; ocean longer
Jacks-smaller return early; hide; sneak maiting attempts |
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| Comparitive lifetime pattern of growth and reproductions |
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| To max fitness depends on ; constraints and environment |
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| small, short lived, high reproductive rates; rapid growth and development, many offspring low survival rates; minimal parental care; unstable habitats; |
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| large, long lived, lower reproductive rates; stable populations; slow growth; fewer offspring, higher survival rates; requires parental care; stable habitat |
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