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| Loss of response to a stimulus after repeated exposure |
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| Learning that is irreversible and limited to a sensitive time period in an animal's life. e.g. young birds imprinting to recognize their mothers |
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| Use of landmarks to learn the spatial structure of the environment |
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| An internal representation of the spatial relationships among objects in the environment |
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| Behavioral change due to the linking of ideas, e.g. linking a stimulus or behavior with a reward or punishment, includes trial-and-error learning. E.g. operant or classical conditioning |
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| Learning by observing and mimicking others |
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| Inventive behavior that arises in response to a new situation |
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| A response directed towards a stimuli |
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| A response directed away from a stimuli |
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| Random movement in response to a stimuli e.g. when a light turns on cockroaches scatter everywhere |
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| Feeding behavior should provide maximum energy gain at minimum energy expense. |
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| Elaborate courtship rituals |
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| Animals of the same species are competitors so they must relay that they aren't competing, must identify the other animals sex, if they're same species, and sexually mature. |
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| Pollutants affecting behavior |
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| Can mimic hormones (enhancing or inhibiting) by effecting the vertebrate endocrine system. |
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| Benefits of territorial behavior |
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| Try to avoid deadly encounters, say this is my spot so you don't need to continuously fight over it and know where to find resources |
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| Natural selection favors altruistic behavior that contributes to the reproductive success of an organisms relatives |
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| Sum of how many offspring it can produce and how many it can help relatives produce (as they share half the same genes) |
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| An altruistic act that can be repaid at a later time by beneficiary (who is not related to the helper) |
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| Studies change in population size and the factors that regulate it over time. |
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| Why does population size vary? |
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| immigration, death, birth, and emigration |
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| biological phenomena where an organism produces biochemical that influence growth, survival, and reproduction of other organisms. |
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| Type 1 survivorship curve |
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| Population declines as people get older, few offspring but the majority survive |
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| Type 2 survivorship curve |
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| No specific stage with a sharp decline, equal over time. e.g. like a squirrel |
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| Type 3 survivorship curve |
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| Greatest mortality is early in life, have lots of offspring but very little parental care . |
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| Per capita rate of increase, aka average contribution of each individual to population growth. The higher this is the greater the chance for a type 3 population curve |
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| G=rN means that growth rate can be calculated by multiplying population size by the average offspring per capita. it gives an idealized picture of unlimited population growth, however doesn't account for limited resources |
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| Description of population growth, however unlike the exponential growth model it accounted for limiting factors as the population increases. G=rN (K-N) over K |
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| Density-dependent factors |
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| Limiting factors related to density, often biotic. e.g. food and nutrition limitations, insufficient territories, increase in disease and predators, and accumulation of toxins. |
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| Density-independent factors |
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| Intra-specific competition |
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| competition between individuals of the same species for limited resources. As food supply diminishes so does the population size b/c they have less energy for reproducing therefore lower birth rates and increase in death rates. |
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| selection for these traits occur where the per capita rate of increase (r) is maximized. |
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| Selection for these traits occur in environments where the population is near carrying capacity (K) |
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| A shift from zero population growth where birth and death rates are high but roughly even, to zero population growth, where birth and deaths rates are low but equal. e.g. in mexico |
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| Interspecific Interactions: |
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| relationships with other individuals of other species in the community e.g. competition, mutualism, predation, herbivore, and parasites |
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| Sum of its biotic and abiotic resources |
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| niche that potentially can be occupied, where they would be found if there was no competition |
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| Occur when a change at one trophic level indirectly affects trophic levels more than 1 step away |
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| Eat small animals, only carnivores and insectivores |
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| Animals that eat secondary consumers e.g. snakes that eat the mice |
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| Top of the trophic levels e.g. hawk, killer whale, etc. |
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| Depends on species richness (different types) and relative abundance |
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| Behavior that reduces an individuals fitness while increasing the fitness of others in the population |
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| Sum of its biotic and abiotic resources |
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| Depends on species richness (different types of species) and relative abundance |
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| Agriculture using multiple crops in the same space, shows diversity of natural ecosystems |
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| Just having one species in an area, problem is that they are bred for certain characteristics therefore genetic variability is low and if a pathogen comes in it can be devastating to the entire field. |
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| Process of change in the species structure over time |
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| When ecological succession happens in a lifeless area, like lava rock. |
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| A flood or fire destroyed the primary environment and you must start over. Main difference b/w primary and secondary is that secondary has soil. |
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| when two species reciprocally affect each others evolution. |
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| intentional release of a natural enemy to attack the pest population. |
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| amount of living organic material in an ecosystem. |
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illustrates loss of energy with each transfer in food chain.
Note the decline of energy in the trophic structure, amount of energy available to top-level consumers is small compared to that available to the low-level consumer |
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| Studies all biotic factors e.g. competition with other plants for nutrients |
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| Biotic and Abiotic factors. Includes how much rain falls, how fast the nutrients are recycled and how soon are they available after decomposition. Provides insight into environmental problems. |
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| What ecologists refer to as the loss of a single population of a species (a sign that the species is in trouble, but can still be fixed) |
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| Biotic and abiotic factors, includes how much rain falls, how fast nutrients are recycled, etc. Provides insight into environmental problems |
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| Light winds caused by moist air rising at the equator |
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| Ocean currents are caused by |
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| Prevailing winds, planets rotation, unequal heating of surface waters, and location/shapes of landmasses. |
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| Dry area on the back of a mountanous area, as the mountains block the passage of rain |
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| Continental shelf to ocean bottom |
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| Where light can penetrate (up to 200 m) |
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| Permanent tilt of the planet on its axis as it absorbs the sun, this is why when its summer in the northern hemisphere the days are shorter and its winter in the south |
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| Between the equator and north/south |
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| biome that occurs when one or more rivers or streams merges with the ocean. Appealing because of the salinity and enriched by nutrients |
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| below the photic zone, twilight zone, barely any light. |
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| Heats up hot on top and cold water (heaviest stuff) sinks to the bottom, b/c there is no mixing in this season there will be no oxygen available at some point, slowing down decomposing process, limiting nutrients, and inhibiting algae from growing (a good thing) |
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