has two branches, physiological and behavioral ecology

cannot evolve

populations evolve

population growth, fluctuation, regulation, demography, life history stategies

competition, herbivory, predation, mutualism

do not evolve

most competition is underground

succession, diversity

describes everywhere a species could have a long term existence

physiological tolerances to abiotic facots like temp, light, water, nutrients

aboitic and biotic factors

it shows the actual rance map for a species, so a species already live there

realized niche is smaller because, for instance, seeds did not disperse to the fundamental niche, so it's not there

happens sporadically

usually there is a dome of moisture that is pushed water over a hill

during el nino, there are no cyclic winds to move the dome of water so it just goes east, so oceans do not upwell as well, so there is a lot of rain in the west coast of the US

the dome of water is by the Japanese current

gets the most direct sunlight, watts/m^2

incoming solar radiation

oceanic circulation, el nino

part of a larger current called the Great Ocean Conveyer Belt

carries heat from the Caribbean aroudn the atlantic

explains why it rains in the winter in London

upwelling current so it brings a lot of butrients like algae and plankton

big fishing industry in the area

3.5 degrees drop every 100 ft up

explains why there are different plants in different altitudes

4ft - 75 degs

2ft - 76 degs

1ft - 80 degs

0 ft - 110 degs - can affect seedling survival

variation of day/night temperature is greatest at the ground

affected by the earth's orbit and differential heating and cooling rates of water/land

day vs. night

during the day, air over the water does to the land everywhere because the land is warmer than water, and warm air rises

opposite for night time

are hemeotherms (keep constant body temps)

body generated internally

birds, mamamals

poikilotherms(budy temp fluctuates)

body generated externally, most animals

fur, feathers evolved from reptile scales

they keep air space between the fur/feather and the skin

when cold, they shiver

they can manipulate their boundary layer - goosebumps, puffing up feathers

when hot, sweat, heaving (dogs)

short term response

usually happens to small things at higher altitudes like humingbirds and bats

hummingbird hardens and stops moving

fat with many capillaries (more caps more heat)

breats, bats, hummingbirds, and infant humans have these

internal vs. external tissues in tuna (and other diving fish)

allows external tissues to coold down when diving into wooler water

happens in hibernation and torpor

 SA/V ratio

when going from the equator to the poles, animals go from a small size to a larger size

cold water birds, aquatic vertabrates, killer whales, dolphins, turtles

arteries/vein are beside each other to transfer heat so extremities wont lose heat

individual shut down to try to make it through winter

cuts cell membranes

activated by day length and ends when the temp brings them out

ethylene glycol is used to pump cells oull of it so it shuts them down?

different forms of the same enzyme encoded by different genes

allows ectotherms to have enzymes to heat a wide temp range

occurs where there is uneven crossing over

one chromosome ends up with a deletion

the 2nd chromosome has two identical genes(duplication)

one estrase is Estrase 1

Estrase  2 can evolve to function at a different temp

lower the temp, work a lot slower

appeared in July instead of may because there was a cold summer because of a volcanic eruption

white sulfer butterfly that develops faster, popular in Alaska (latitudinal cline)

has trouble mating

they are female-sex linked train females are XO and makes are XX for butterflies

when its 50 degrees, yellow jackets dont function

dave got stung slowly in 40 degree weather, was less severe

heliotherms and basking - lizards, some butterflies, thorax on their back is dark so it can absorb sunlight to heat up

first butterfly to come out in the spring

enteres diapause as an adult (usually as larva)

sensitive to temp change

pit vipers hunt at night because they can see warm rodents better

they are nocturnal hunters who like endotherms

have a nostril looking thing that senses infrared to the .01 degrees C

global air circulation patterns...look at lecture slides

happens at the equator and tropical rainforests

deserts at 30 degrees north and south latitude

evolutionary response to moisture stress

dried out mosses can photosynthesize with some water after 100 years

mosses were the first land plants

waxy cuticle, roots and vascular system,

stomata with gaurd cells - ventilation, air (look at slides)

succulence - like in cacti, hold water

C_4 and CAM photosynthetic pathways

most photosynthesis occurs in the bundle sheath cell

grabs SOMETHING? out of the air which lowers the concentration of CO_2

diffusion gradient is high and goes in the cell and attaches to a 3 carbon molecule and turns it into a 4 carbon C_4

this happens even though stomates are closed

these plants are in dry areas

evolved 25 times

grass, corn

LOOK AT SLIDES

in anthropods - most successful animals

beatle cell and spiders

animals that do this (birds, reptiles, insects) use eggs to reproduce, which have shells

nitrogenous waste is in the egg with the baby so it evolved do it was not harmful to the offspring

opem stomates at night, no heato so no loss of water

take in CO_2 and bind to a 3 carbon compound to make a 4 carbon compound

happens in cacti, crassuleceae

availability at the ground level

short trees should have leaves before the canopy trees

2-5% of light hits the ground of the forest floor

temporal variation in light intensity

leads to phenological adaptation - adaptations related to time (spring flowering)

 mushrooms are made cause of more wind and moisture?

light intensity at which photosynthesis is maximized (which is not good cause it leads to drying out)

C_3 plants are in the understory trilliam

C_4 plants are at high light areas like deserts

O_2 starts accumulating

surface of the land pulled O_2 out of the earth so it didnt accumulate until 2.5 bya

end of snowball earth

cambrian explosion, all modern phyla appeared

colonization of land by plants, fungi, anthropods,

tides

brythyles evolve from green algae

Pangea

longest mass extinction (90% died)

most fossils were mollusks

less water for coastal animals

natural disasters (eqs, volcanoes) altered climate

asteroid/comet impact caused last mass extinction

comet his the Yucatan pen

caused a debris cloud

asteroid was 6 miles wide

lost 79% of species

caused tsunamis and forest fires

temp increased by 35-40 degs

small mammals did not die

change in the gene pool (allele frequencies) of a population

an example is sickle cell anemia

before 99% of africans had the normal homoglobin and now 80% have it

origin of new species, genera, families

arises from microevolutionary changes

fixed genes

sickle cell

fixed for one allele

has at least 2 alleles

competitive ability, slower evolution

mutation (slow) - has to happen

natural selection (adaptive evolution) - cause of micro evolution to end and start macro

genetic drift - allele freq changing because of chance (non adaptive)

immigration/emmigration (ignored)

differential reproduction among genotypes withing a population

some genotypes leave more offspring than others

evolution toward higher fitness

opposable thumbs

one extreme phototype has highest fitness

relative fitness can change as enfironments change

industrial melanism and poppered moth

before 1850, melanic form was less than 10%, now it is 99% due to pollution

intermediate phenotype has highest fitness

courtship 

human birth weight

intermediate phenotype has lowest fitness

rare

rapid evolution of many descendant species from a single ancestral species, usually due to availability of many vacant niches

darwin's finches

placental mammals

traits increase because they are good for the gene, even though they may be bad for the individual

segregation distortion - one allele occurs in sperm

bad thing to the other allele so allele 1 will be in the offspring  while allele 2 sperm are reduced

traits increase because they are good for the group even though they may be bad for the individual

altruistic behavior

-sacrifice fitness for someone else's fitness

-happens within kin groups, parental care

- birds with nests, geese, frongs, some bugs

yes

high mutation rate species survive if environments change fast

50/50

best ratio is 85-90 female, 10-15 male

higher fitness genotype if there is a high sex ratio

change in allele frequencies by chance

causes nonadaptive evolution

bird nests and lightining 

-90% A and 10% a

- lightining strike

-100% A

happened by chance

occurs constantly during all life stages of all populations 

loss of alleles from a population - drift alone would eventually result in the elimination of all but one allele

genetic divergence between populations, due to loss of different alleles from each population

both h appen faster if the population is small

all threatened and engangered species - programs try to minimize drift

many island populations:oceanic, terrestrial, aquatic

many peripheral populations

any populations that experiences a bottleneck (temporary, severe reduction in pop size)

 populations that experiences founder effects

allele that codes for it is in a higher frequency (500x) for caucasion Ausis

it was caused by prisoners being freed

everything we see is the result of natural selection

natural selection typically results in optimally adapted species

the optimal adaptation (or mutation) may never have arisen

if it did, drift almost certainly eliminated the mutation before selection could make it increase so if 5000 indivs were there, 1/10000 would have the mutation

-could be recessive

most enzyme loci are not detectably polymorphic (they are fixed - monomorphic)

most ikely it will push the population to a local rather than global optimumin the adaptive landscape

the selection moves the population up slope to the closest peak

change in pop size overtime = dN/dt

our models will be determined by births and deaths only, no immigration or emigration

how many indivs there are in a pop

average individual is doing (rate of reproduction)

the maximum per capita rate of reproduction the environment allows, assuming unlimited access to resources

allee effect

-need to prevent pops from getting small in the first place

carrying capacity

resource fluctuation changes K

microevolution changes K 

constant for a given pop

flucs with resources and microevolution 

r_max is big enough

populations overshoot

look at page 6 of pop stuff to read more 

with a big populations density, disease is spread easier

gypsy moths and viruses 

shoot responds after herbivory have more resin that contains toxic phenolic compounds

the first shoot yields less compounds and hares can eat it, and the next shoot has more compounds and the hares die out cylicly 

explains the hare cycle because they dont like the resin the 2nd time it sprouts

population size increases

this is due to realized r decreasing or increased mortality 

competition

density dependent dispersal

density dependent predation and parasitoidism

density dependent disease 

barred own eats deer mouse and shrew

one year itll eat deer mouse a lot and shrew barely, so its disproportional,which causes dN/dt to decrease for deer mouse and an increase in shrew, so next year itll reverse

from birth to an age class = l_x

number of years until death = e_x 

number of daughters produced

age specific fecundity = m_x 

age specific realized fecundity = l_x*m_x

during the rest of life, reproductive value = v_x 

rare

low juvenile mortality

much parental care

few, large offspring

large mammal curve 

age specific realized fecundity - the average number of daughters a newborn female will produce during age class x

average of survivors and non-survivors

net replacement rate

total number of daughters produced over a female's lifetime

sum of l_x*m_x