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evolution of complex networks of organic compounds before the origin of life
Miller asked Urey for permission to try an experiment in prebiotic synthesis based on a reducing atmosphere |
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| Life is an innate property of organic matter |
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| Panspermia is the theory that life was seeded on Earth and other planets from outer space |
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| Species were fixed, distinct types, that could be arranged in a linear sequence, like links in a chain |
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| all of nature is designed in accord with a predetermined, benevolent, and supernatural plan |
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The Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) set out to reveal part of the divine plan by collecting and classifying plants
His Systema Natura (1735) is still used by modern botanists
He invented a new system of classifying organisms
Organisms were grouped together as Classes, Orders, Genera (Genus), Species
Invented binomial nomenclature, our modern scientific names - Genus species |
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| new species must be hybrids of existing species |
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One of the first to realize organisms could evolve. Best known for his theory of the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Changes in the living body could be passed on to descendants (ex. giraffes’ necks) |
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| Theory of Organic Progression |
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| Once generated, organisms changed along fixed and parallel paths |
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Darwin rejected the idea of a divine plan behind nature
Darwin broke with the Argument from Design and the Chain of Being. believed that adaptation resulted from ordinary laws of nature, no divine intervention, no cosmic blueprint. Wrote Origin of Species |
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| Boat Darwin took to Galapagos |
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| Captain of HMS Beagle who was moody, contentious, intensely devout |
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Darwin published ______ in 1859, started a great debate
Debate was mostly over the mechanism of evolution, not its existence |
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In 1838, Darwin read An Essay on the Principle of Population, written by ______
Population would increase geometrically, but resources could only increase arithmetically
Over time, this would lead to a growing gap between too many people and too few resources |
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Population would increase geometrically, but resources could only increase arithmetically
Over time, this would lead to a growing gap between too many people and too few resources
Out of this gap came what Malthus called ______ |
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In any struggle, there would be winners and losers
The winners must be those individuals better equipped to survive, what Herbert Spencer was to later call ______ |
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| The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution |
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| Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: |
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Definition
Growth with reproduction, inheritance
Variation in populations
Struggle for existence
Natural selection of certain varieties
Change in proportion of those varieties in the next generation
Extinction of poorly adapted forms |
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| Experimented with garden peas and showed that the physical units for heredity come in pairs, one from each parents. Heredity was particulate, not blending of fluids (contrast to Darwin). And that variation was not continuous, but discontinuous. |
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| gradual and continuous process where gemmules moved to the reproductive organs during sex |
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| Tiny particles called ______ carried the information of heredity, and floated in different parts of the body, knew how to make that body part |
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| different versions of the same genes (original “wild type”, mutated form) |
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| Mendel discovered that some genes were dominant over others, and would mask the effects of the second gene (T - tall) |
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| Other genes were recessive (t - short) |
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| If two different genes come together we call the plant ______ (Tt) |
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| What we call a plant when two similar genes come together (TT) (tt) |
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| changes in genetic information |
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| the fusion of abstract models of genes moving through populations, with the population perspective biologists |
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| any difference between individuals of the same species |
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the number of inhabitants (either the total number or the number of a particular race or class) in a given place (country or city etc.)
-> evolution occurs faster if this is smaller |
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| biological species concept |
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| species are populations of similar organisms that can interbreed with one another, but are reproductively isolated from other such populations by one or more isolating mechanisms |
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| groups that can interbreed |
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| The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution |
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| Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection |
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Darwin’s Theory of Evolution:
Natural selection of certain varieties
Change in proportion of those varieties in the next generation
Extinction of poorly adapted forms
What Darwin accomplished:
Broke with the Argument from Design
Broke with the Chain of Being
Variation not “noise” but information
Evolution is a selective process
Explained branching pattern of evolution - descent from a common ancestor |
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| Higher organisms have two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent |
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| make up RNA and are attached to the backbone of sugar and phosphate molecules |
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| made up by a linear series of amino acids |
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| create a linear series to make up protein (there are 20 of these) |
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| deoxyribonucleic acid: two strands in a coiled helix, each made up of a series of organic compounds called nucleotides |
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| ribonucleic acid: a single strand of nucleotides |
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| A sequence of three necleotides that makes up an amino acid. There are 64 of these possible |
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| random alterations in genetic information |
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| meiosis shuffles existing variations into infinite new combinations |
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| sexual reproduction is nearly universal among higher organisms. This creates an incredible number of new beings from a relatively small number of alleles |
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regular cell division that creates to identical diploid cells (two 2n)
Chromatids replicate before division
Chromosomes line up at the center
Chromatids separate, go to daughter cells
Daughter cells are now identical |
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turns one diploid cell into 4 haploid cells. happens with 2 full cell divisions
Reduction Division
Mitosis |
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| organisms with one of each type of chromosome (1N) |
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| organisms with two of each type of chromosome (2N) |
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| The first cell division in meiosis |
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| the direction each chromosome takes during reduction division |
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| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium |
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| If large populations mate randomly, the proportion of two alleles will never change. In other words, they discovered that evolution is mathematically impossible |
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| the amount of times a gene will occur. according to harvey-weinberg it will always be in equilibrium |
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| organisms enter a population |
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| the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. |
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| organisms leave a population |
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| moving of genes between local populations, relies on dispersal ability |
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| when populations breed within. This is the scenario in which evolution is most likely to occur because random accidents have significant effect |
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| only having one partner at a time for long periods of time, but eventually leaving one partner for another |
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| having more than one partner |
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| shows that chance events can affect gene frequencies in unexpected ways |
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| change in allele frequencies in small isolated populations due to random events |
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| any factor that acts to reduce or block the flow of genes between two populations |
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| geographic isolating mechanism |
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| geography isolates the population. this results in speciation (which is the formation of new species) |
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| reproductive isolation mechanisms |
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temporal
behavioral
mechanical
ecological |
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| temporal isolating mechanism |
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population becomes isolated in time
-many species have fixed breeding season and a shift in the timing of breeding could isolate them |
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| behavioral isolating mechanism |
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| changes in behavior, especially courtship and mating behavior |
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| mechanical isolating mechanism |
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| the parts no longer fit together |
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| evolution at or below the species level |
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| evolution above the level of species (orders, classes, etc...) |
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| replacement of a light morph by a dark morph in an industrialized area |
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| average value of a trait is shifted in a particular direction (higher or lower) |
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| acts to stabilize the population around some average value |
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| the environment selects for the two extremes, against the average, splitting the population in two or more types |
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| the evolutionary process whereby a population becomes better suited to its habitat. |
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| structures that are structurally and developmentally similar, even though they may be put to very different uses. they are derived from a common ancestor |
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| structures that are superficially similar, but developmentally different. these evolve because there are a limited number of solutions to evolutionary challenges |
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| two unrelated lineages converge on a common solution to an evolutionary problem |
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| divergence from a common ancestor |
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| Evidence of Evolution (6) |
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-Biodiversity
-Biogeography
-Fossil Record
-Embryology
-Comparative anatomy
-Molecular evolution |
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| Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Animalia, Plantae, Fungi |
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| the description, naming, and classification of living organisms |
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| any rank in classification, a collection of related organisms |
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| the evolutionary history of organisms (their lineage) |
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| our current scheme of classification |
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| the tree of life (a diagram that illustrates phylogeny) |
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| a taxon, or a branch on the tree of life, determined by shared traits |
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| Clades are determined by traits they share, traits that are different from their ancestors. We call these traits ______, shared divided characteristcs |
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| contains the common ancestor and all of its descendants |
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| contains common ancestor but only some descendants (most similar) |
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| contains some descendant species but no common ancestors (may even come from different ancestors) |
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domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, species
=7 taxa |
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-archaea
-bacteria
-eukarya |
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methanogens-very primitive, anaerobic, produce methane
halophilic archaeans-salt loving
thermophilic archaeans- heat loving, most ancient survivors |
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| very primitive, anaerobic, produce methane |
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photosynthetic (once called blue-green algae)
nostoc
anabena
oscillatoria |
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bacteria and archaeans are prokaryotes
-primitive cells, unicellular
-lack a cell nucleus (no nuclear membrane around chromosomes)
-lack cellular organelles bound by membranes (no chloroplast, no mitochondria, etc...) |
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all higher organisms (eukarya) are eukaryotes
-complex cells, multicellular (some are unicellular)
-nucleus (enclosed by a nuclear membrane)
-cellular organelles enclosed by membranes (chloroplasts, mitochondria, etc...) |
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| complexity of eukaryotic cells may be because a devoured cell became a part of it |
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| thick mats, go back 2.7 billion years, one of the first ecosystems on earth |
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| Three basic types of bacteria |
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| self-feeder. These organisms produce their own energy |
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| autotroph that creates energy with chemical reactions |
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| autotroph that creates energy with sunlight and water |
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| fed by others. eats other organisms to survive |
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| get their energy from dead and decaying matter |
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| one of the reasons bacteria is important: turn atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use |
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| one of the reasons bacteria is important: forms nodules on the roots of legumes |
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| enlarged structure where nitrogen fixation takes place |
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heterotrophic protists
-cilia
-flagella
-pseudopodia |
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| passive movement of molecules from area of higher concentration to lower concentration. results from the random movement of molecules |
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Protist eat by ______
-engulf food in cell membrane
-pinch off membrane from vacuole
-vacuoles store food, water, enzymes, and waste |
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| method of movement for protists. fake feet. used by amoebozoa, foraminfera |
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| thickening agent also extracted from cell walls of red algae, used in making ice cream, lunch meats, and paint |
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| shells form deposits called _____, used in abrasives, talc, and chalks |
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| algal blooms of dinoflagellates are the cause of _______ |
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(euglena)
800 sp.
plant or animal? heterotrophs, but 1/3 are also photosynthetic
may have formed by endosymbiosis |
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(ceratium, gonyaulax)
3,000 species, from latin for whirling whip. about half are photosynthetic. two flagella, one belt one tail
-zooxanthellae: some that have lost flagella and live as symbionts in mollusks, sea anemones, jellyfish, coral
-make coral more productive
-algal blooms of dinoflagellates |
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(plasmodium)
spore forming parasites
plasmodium-cause malaria |
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(paramecium, blepharisma)
8,000 species from latin: eyelash, greek: to bear
-Paramecium- have contractive vacuole
-move by numerous cilia |
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(amoeba)
over 300 species- true amoeba
move by pseudopods
eat other protozoans
many are parasites |
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foraminifera
-marine forms, sculpted shells
-extended cytoplasmic podia
-spines function in feeding, swimming
importance:
-form limestone, marble, chalk
-great pyramids
-fossil record
algae - autotrophic protists |
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brown algae
(fucus, sargassum, kelp)
largest protists, kelp up to 100 meters long |
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diatoms-11,500 species
-add large percentage of 02 to the atmosphere
-diatomaceous earth |
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red algae (polysiphonia, nemalion)
importance:
-agar
carrageen |
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