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| the study of planet Earth, began in the late 1700s |
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| scientists who study the forces that make and shape planet Earth |
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| 5-40 km thick, cool in temperature, the layer of rock that forms the Earth’s outer skin, also includes soil and the water that covers parts of the Earth, two types of crust: oceanic crust and continental crust |
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| a dark dense rock with a fine texture, oceanic crust is made mainly of basalt |
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| shape the surface by building up mountains and land masses |
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| slowly wear away mountains and other surface features |
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| seven great land masses that are made up of layers of rock and are surrounded by water |
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| geologists use seismic waves to study the inside of the Earth |
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| waves produced by earthquakes, geologists study how the waves travel through the Earth to reveal how the planet is put together |
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| a light rock that is less dense than basalt and has larger crystals, continental crust is made up of granite |
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| 2,900 km thick, 870˚C, middle layer the Earth, made of hot rock, two main parts |
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| the uppermost part of the mantle, right next to the crust, about 100 km thick, very rigid |
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| lower mantle, a soft and tar-like, the rock in the asthenosphere can actually flow, extends all the way to the core, lithosphere floats on top of the asthenosphere |
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| made of iron and nickel, consists of two parts, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core |
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| currents in the core spin faster than the rest of the planet, this creates Earth’s magnetic field causing Earth to act like a giant bar magnet, the geographic poles are in different positions than the magnetic poles |
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| the movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object, three types: radiation, conduction, and convection |
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transfer of energy through an empty space
give example: |
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heat transfer by direct contact of particles of matter
give example: |
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| heat transfer involving the movement of fluids, liquids, and gases, heat is transferred from one part of a fluid to another give example: |
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the flow that transfers heat within a fluid, caused by the heating and cooling of the mantle, changes in the mantle’s density and the force of gravity combine to set convection currents in motion
give example: ? heated ? cooled |
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in 1910, a German scientist, Alfred Wegener, hypothesized that all the continents had once been joined together in a single landmass ad have since drifted apart
the idea that continents slowly move over the Earth’s surface |
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| the name of Wegener’s super-continent, which existed about 300 million years ago |
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| hypothesized that all the continents had once been joined together in a single landmass ad have since drifted apart. Evidence:Wegener published his evidence in his book, The Origin of Continents and Oceans ©1915 & Landforms |
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any trace of an ancient organism preserved in rock
fossils of the reptiles Mesosaurus and Lystrosaurus have been found on continents that are separated by oceans, |
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| Fossils of one of the first marine reptiles, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa |
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| the fossil plant found in the southern continents |
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| fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age from locations in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.[ |
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| a device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects and records the echoes. The time it takes an echo to bounce back indicates the depth of the object |
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| an underwater mountain range, located under the Atlantic Ocean, longest mountain range in the world, parts of it poke out to the surface (Iceland |
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| In 1960, American geologist Harry Hess thought that the ocean floor moves like a conveyor belt and carries the continents along with them, Hess hypothesized that at the mid-ocean ridge, molten material rises from the mantle and erupts, the molten material then spreads out, pushing the older rocks to both sides of the ridge |
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Evidence from Molten Material-
in 1960s, scientists found out that new material is erupting from the ocean floor, Alvin found pillow shaped rocks on the mid-ocean ridge that are the result of molten material that has erupted and cooled |
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Evidence from Magnetic Stripes-
Earth’s magnetic poles have reversed themselves many times, the pattern of magnetized stripes are preserved on the ocean floor (the pattern is the same on both sides of the mid-ocean ridge) |
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| 1977 - ALVIN, the only U.S. manned, scientific deep submersible (at that time), locates and documents deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the eastern tropical Pacific. |
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| Evidence from Drilling Samples- The Glomar Challenger drilled into the ocean floor in 1968, the rocks that were farthest away from the mid-ocean ridge were the oldest rocks, and the younger rocks were near the center of the mid-ocean ridge |
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| a deep water canyon formed when oceanic crust bends downward into the mantle, where subduction takes place |
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| the process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench back into the mantle, caused by the changes in the temperature and density of the crust |
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| Theory of Plate Tectonics |
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| states that pieces of the Earth’s crust are in constant, slow motion, driven by convection currents, this explains the formation, movement, and subduction of the Earth’s plates |
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| observed by Canadian scientist J. Tuzo Wilson in 1965, the lithosphere is broken into sections, like puzzle pieces |
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| where plates meet, three kinds of boundaries |
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| breaks in the Earth’s crust where rocks have slipped past each other |
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| when two plates slip past each other in opposite directions, crust is neither created or destroyed, causes earthquakes (San Andreas Fault) |
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| when two plates move apart, just like sea-floor spreading (Mid-Ocean Ridge) |
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| when a divergent boundary forms on land, like the Great Rift Valley in Africa, water might fill it in someday |
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| when two plates come together and cause a collision, he plate with the lowest density subducts and forms a trench, if they have equal density, then they collide and form a mountain range (Himalayas) |
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| Mountain range created by 2 plates of equal density colliding. |
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