• Bring water to irrigate crops
• provide drinking water
• supply coolant for power plants
• transportation
• provide ecosystems for wildlife
• recreation sites

• 77.3 % in ice (Ice stores about 3 times the volume of water found in under ground. Many rivers have sources in glacial melt watesr (e.g. Brahmaputra and Ganges Rivers) )
• .2% soil
• .3% streams (Many rivers and streams have sources in springs wthat bring groundwater to the surface, such as the Nile River)
• 22.2% groundwater (70 times greater than the volume of water in streams and lakes)

• Flow down slope
• often join other streams to form a network
• empty into another body of water

1. The size of the area it drains
2. The average precipitation over the area.

The area drained by a stream and its smaller streams (tributaries) The drainage basin for the Mississippi takes up half the land area of the US

Streams follow the path of least resistance forming valleys where rock is most readily eroded or follows the steepest slope. These streams look like branches of a tre (called dendrite drainage)  The tips of the v's is where the streams come together and they point downstream.

is the volume of water that passes a given point in one second

(Discharge (m3/s) = width(m) x depth(m) x velocity (m/s)

stream load

the combination of bed load, suspended load and disolved load.

• Soil is different
• Different weathering in the regions
• The area of the Amazin os much more densly vegetated (vegetation protects the underlying soil from erosion)

sediment is often deposited in the stream channel itself to form bars or islands. These deposits split the channel into smaller channels forming a braided chanel. As the meander becomes larger, the channel migrates across the flood plain in the direction of erosion, giving the river a very much of a S shape.

• Delta, where they enter the relatively quite waters of an ocean or lake.
• Velocity rapidly declines as the river hits the ocean causing the drop or sediment.
• Constant dredging is required in orer for ocreangoing ships ot navigate the main river channel of the Mississippi Delta.

Quiz Material Chapter 11

The majority of water on earth is located underground on the continents?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

The lower point to which a stream flows is called?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Floods ocure when rivers of streams have too much or not enough water?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Stream velocity increases or decreases the further downstream you travel?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

True or false?: The suspended load increases with the velocity of a stream.

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Streams flow (faster/slower) in the mountains where the gradient is higher

Quiz Material Chapter 11

I have a channel 2 meters wide, 2 meters deep with a velocity of 2 gallons per minute. Waht is the discharge rate?

8 gallons per minute

Apparently we need to know the formula which is

Discharge(m3/s) = width (m) x depth (m) x velocity (m/s)

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Where does the bed load in a stream? Along the bottom, in the middle or at the top?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Where is the base level for the Mississippi river?

Quiz Material Chapter 11

A delta is silt deposted at a river mouth due to clays and silts, etc. settling out in quietr water (true,false)

Quiz Material Chapter 11

Briefly describe how an oxbow lake forms and draw a picture..

Oxbow lakes form as sediment is removed from the outside of a channel and deposted ion the inside of the channel. (Remember the picture? So the sream or river comes down and then splits to surround the islands created by the sediment which was dsposted in the middle, then the stream/river rejoins on the other side)

Chapter 11 Continued March 22 Lecture

Flood

• magnitude , timing, and type of precipitation
• human modifications of the physical landscape
• capability of the round to absorb water
• evaporation rates
• physical characteristics of the stream system.

• long term and short term precipitation
• Jan-July several midwatesrn states received over 150% of their normal precipitation and heavy storms added large amounts of rainfall all at once.

• Paving covers or alters natural surfaces that otherwise might absorb water.
• Storm sewers that divert water from surfaces dump it into natural streams causing them to flood
• Housing developments or agricultural fields replace natural wetlands, which act as water storage reservoirs.
• The collapse of constructed dams.

the stream stage, the depth of water in a channel relative to a starting point for measurement. There are over 7,000 stream gauges across the USA and data is available via satellite for scientists.

1. Cities located on flood plains suffer the most economic losses
2. Floodwaters can carry contaminated water (sewage, agricultural chemicals)
3. Roads get submerged in water and have to be closed and repaired after the flood.
4. Farmland is submerged and production falls
5. Floods can deposit thick layers of sediment where it should not be
6. Can halt barge traffic for months
7. Poeple die and are uprooted and evacuated.

they operate under the premis that flodwaters can be stored in resevoirs to be released slowly when the threat of flooding has receded.  The potential problem is that the facility must be big enough to accomodate the excess.

1. Relocate settlement to higher ground
2. sales ax increases to fund projects that modify land use patterns in flood plains
3. restoration of wetlands along river banks
4. avoid development in areas prone to flooding
5. FEMA created to provide financial assistance to those affected by natural disasters including floods

Chapter 12 begins here

True or false: Tap water is just as safe as bottled water

human actions e.g. chemical leaks from storage tanks

53,000

Few become polluted but when they do cleanups can be tricky especially for underground sources.

most ground waters is in billions of tiney spaces between mineral grains or in narrow cracks.

the proportion of a material that is made up of spaces. The prosity depends on the size and arragements of the grains (better sorted  = higher porosity)

(if 1/2 the total volume of a rock is pore spacethen the porosity is 50%).

Higher

sand and gravel are more porous than sandstone, and conglomerate.

the ground water that can drain from a rock or sediment

specific yeild = prosotiy - specific retention

The capacity of water to flow through earth materials. Water can flow readily through materials with well connected pore space or many fractures. Connections between pore spaces are wider in coarse-grained material (gravels) than fine-grained material(sand)

groundwater is stored in bodies of rock and or sediment called aquifers, which are composed of sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water

• high porosity and permeability
• most productive aquifers are found in unconsolidated earth materials (80% of all groundwater withdrawn in the US comes from sand and gravel aquifers)

the top of the saturated zone is called the water table. It is highest under hills and lowest under valleyss. When the water table intersects the land surface a stream , lake or spring will occure.

can occure through infiltration of rainwater or streams. Recharge can also occurred room stored groundwater, present from a wetter time in the past (e.g. water that precipitated ino the ground when the last ice sheets melted; this is non-renewable water)

springs and wetlands. Springs form where there are fractures or cave systems intersect with the land surface. Wetland smay form where several small springs distribute water over a region underlain by a low-permeability materail such as clay or shale.

In coastal regions fresh water is found floating above a denser layer of saltwater. Saltwater infiltrates the grond just like fresh water. Where the freshwater layer meets the coast it flows into the ocean. In coastal cities freshwater can be extracted from the fresh water layer, but if it is extracted faster than it is replenished, salt water can flow into wells.

rapid population growth =

the water table surrounding a well can decline if water is pumped out too fast. The surface of the depleted water table forms a cone of depression around the well.

sucking up a spilled drink from a table through a straw. No mater how big a straw you use, mosf the drink stays on te table top.

a drop in the ground surface in response to a decrease in volume of the underlying sediment. Subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal has occured in some of the world's largest citities. It is responsible for the lean in the leaning tower of Pisa.

irrigation, much of which occures in the Great plaines (Texas, Okalahoma, Kansas, Nebraska and their neighbors.)

Open Aquifers are partially recharged by

"fossil" water is being used up faster than it is recharged. Water table is dropping over much of the aquifer. Approximately 11% of the ground water has been extracted.

aresenic

mercury

Bangladesh, most densly populated nation in the world, poorest nation int he world, contaminated with pollutants till the late 1970s. In the USA the ppb (parts per billion) of arsenic is 0.05 milligrams per liter. In Bangladesh the standard is 50 with some wells having 2,000 ppb)

• Point Source: can be identified and located (i.e. a leaking gasoline storage tank.)
• Nonpoint source: occure over a wide area.

Quiz Material Chapter 12

One source of drinking water in the USA are lakes (T or F)

Quiz Material Chapter 12

Which term is given to drinkable water?

Quiz Material Chapter 12

Floods occure when rivesr or streams have (too much or not enough) water

Quiz Material Chapter 12

Which underground deposit has the most readily accessible water? (Clay bed, gravel bed, peat bed)

Quiz Material Chapter 12

True or false: The water table cna rise or fall with the rainfall and weather

Quiz Material Chapter 12

If a rock has a high permeability, liquid will move through the rock (faster, slower) than a rock with low permeability

Quiz Material Chapter 12

Name one way that humans increase the severity of floods

• pave over pastures
• funnel water to one location
• drain wetlands
• build housing developments

Quiz Material Chapter 12

A 100 year flood occured in Collegedale in 1974. When should the next 100 flood occure?

Quiz Material Chapter 12

A spring is a type of groundwater feature

Quiz Material Chapter 12

What conditions are needed to have an artesian spring/well What is different about it?

Must have sloping rock structures which confine a permeable layer so that pressure builds up and water is pushed out at lower levels. Water is pushed out and rises above ground due to pressure.

Quiz Material Chapter 12

Aquitards are often made out of rocks like shale, slate, and clay that have low permeability and do not allow the flow of water

Continue Chapter 12 Wetlands

Ramsar Convention

• Hydrologic Conditions: water present on land surface, or soils in root zone must be saturated during growing season or longer.
• Hydrophytic vegetation - specific plants that are water-tolerant and grow under wet conditions (e.g. cattails, wild rice, willows, sawgrass) must be present
• Hydric soils - poorly drained soils that exhibit anaerobic conditions during growing season.

• lower 48, with the largest being in Texas, Florida, and Minnesota
• Outside of Alaska, wetlands have declinded by 55% since 1600's in the US
• 10% or less of original wetlands remain in California, Ohio and Iowa

• improving water quality in rivers by filtering out sediments and contaminants,
• providing breeding grounds for fish and shellfish which supports commercial fishing. Providing ecological habits for migrating birds, modifying the effects of flooding by slowing runoff and providing recreation for humans.

dike it

dam it

divert it

drain it

Begin Chapter 13

The depth of the ocean floor is at this deepest____

Land = les than 1 km

Ocean: 3.8 km

Continental shelf, Abyssal plain, Oceanic ridge, Oceanic trenches

Passive and active margins zones

Both Passive and Active:

Continentlal Shelf

Continental Slope

Abyssal Plain

Active only:

Trench

• The shallow ocean floor adjacent to the continent
• Submerged continental crust that slopes away from coast
• Maximum depth is a few hundred meters
• Wide when adjacent to passive margins, narrow when adjacent to active margins
• The width of the shelf decreases as seal level falls and increases as seal level rises.

• Continental slop and rise are the transition to the abyssal plain
• Abyssal plain = deep ocean floor
• Over 4 km deep and are some of the flattest portions of the earth's surface
• Covered by layers of ery find sediment
• May be dotted by seamounts (underwater volcanoes)

• The oceanic ridge system is a submarine mountain chain that can be traced around the world!
• ocean floor rises from the abyssal plain to the ridge
• 90% of Earth's volcanic activity happens at ocean ridges
• Doesn't heat the water much (rapidly dissipates
• Depth is 3 km over the ridge crest
• Central valley beyond ridge crest, region of submarine hot sprinngs, hot smokers, they are home to some strange life.!

1. Active continental margins where two plates converge form an oceanic trench near the subduction zone
2. Narrow and deep - deepest places on earth!
3. Mark the place where oceanic lithosphere descendes into the mantle
4. 7-11 km (4=7miles) deep

The oceans are salty because

The measure of the concenttration of salt in seawater

the more salt = higher density

Choride (Cl  55%)

Sodium (Na 30.6%)

• Temperature
• Missing cuased by currents
• Frewater input from rain, streams and melting ice
• Salinity is the hightest where theemp is high and precipitation is low (evaporation leaves behind salts.)

• lattitude
• More heat is available eto be absorved in the tropics than near the poles
• Solar energy raises the temprature of the ocean
• Hightest average annual ocean temperatures are found along the equator (81degrees)
• Ocean currents moderate the temprature gradient from equator to poles, but cannot completely conterbalance incoming solar radiation at the equator.
• The density of water decreases with increasing temperature

are relatively warm, warmed by solar radiation

relative uniform temperatur as water is mixed by currents

What three factors affect density?

Surface 2 %

middle 18%

bottom 80%

Below the equator they travel in a

1. Carries high salinity, warm waters from central Atlantic to higher latitudes
2. WAter slowly cools as it travels N
3. Cold, salty water sinks to the bottom of N. Atlantic near Greenland and Iceland
4. Sinking water is then carreid southward along the bottom of teh Atlantic
5. Reaches antartica and is diverted eastward to the India and Pacific
6. Deep current eventually comes up in N. Indian and Pacific Oceans (upwelling) brings nutrients to surface waters.
7. The pattern of deep currents is term thermohaline circulation (driven by both salinity and temperature.

• The moon is not always over the same spot on Earth
• Moon is essentially stationary while earth rotates on its axis
• Imagine tidal bulges as stationary as Earth rotates below them
• A coastal site would rotate below two tidal bulges (high tides) on opposite sides of the Earth each day
• It would also pass through two minima (low tides)

follow a circular path and remain in place.

Wind speed  and distance over which wind boows determine the frictional force, and ultimately the wave height. Large waves come from high velocity, steady winds blowing across a wide arena with no obstructions

Irregulariesi in the shorline or changes in seafloor can change shape and direction of the waves

Can cause bending of the waves toward the shore (refraction)

Chapter 13 Quiz

The surface of the ocean is at the same height at any point on earth (true or false)

Baltic, lots of fresh water enters,

Atlantic where the Amazon dumps into it

( Red sea would not be because there is  lots of evaporation)

Chapter 14 Beings here

Rocky shorelineson active margines have (more,less) sand than shorelines on passive margins

• They cause erosing (wearing away headlinads and filling in bays, straightens out coastline)
• transport material
• deposit sand and other materials

• 3.3 feet on the average per year.
• Erosion is worst on loose unconsoloidated sediments and can be accelerated by surges caused by storms.

How are shorlines affected by deposition?

• Shorelines grow in width with deposition of sediment
• Head on currents carry sediment onto and off the beach and may deposit sand in sand bars off shore during storms
• Long shore currents transport sediment parallel in the surf zone

1. Influence the sdeidment budget, and coastline features by their actions
   2. damming on major rivers can result in sediment 3. starvation because sediment that would have 4. 4. been deposited along the shoreline is trapped upstream
   5. Humans can also build structures to try to combat dangerous erosion processes.

Chapter 15 Begins Atmosphere

What is the name of the captain who jumped from a balloon capsule 20 miles in the air

Captain Kittinger (USAF)

(It was for researching whether astronauts could bail from troubled spacecraft still in the atmosphere)

He reached speeds

• specific mix of gases around us
• protects earth from harmful solar radiation and incoming projectiles
• the lower bounds touch the surface of the earth
• the upper bound is the gradual transition into space
• observed from space the atmosphere is a thin shell around Earth.

What is atmosphere made from?

• Mostly Nitrogen 78 %
• Oxygen 21 percent
• CO2 is a small component but plays a larger role in the greenhouse effect
• Water vapor in the air can range from 0% over deserts to over 7% in humid climates
• Other gasses are Argon, Carbon Dioxide
• Methane, Nitrous oxide

62 miles above Earth's surface. Few gas molecules exist there. Some gas must extend as high as 312 miles high as spacecraft can feel drag up to this altitude

Kinetic

Thermophsere (highest)

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere

• (lowest layer I think). Gets its warmth from earth's surface.
• Shows a decrease in temperature with altitude
• Contains our weather systems
• Air pollution collects here
• The bulk of air and aerosols reside here
• Thickness varies based on its thermal character. Thickest (10 miles over equator) thinnest (5 miles) over poles

• (again order from top to bottom is thermophere, mesosphere, stratosphere, troposphere)
• Shows an increase in temperature with altitude
• over 25 miles thick
• contains about 20% of the atmosphere's air
• This is where ozone resides which blocks out harmful ultraviolet solar radiation
• Temperature increase is due to absoprtion of solar radiation by ozone olecules (higher kinetic energy as nothing to bump into)
• The cool air of the troposphere cannot rise into the stratosphere.

• Decreasing air temperatures that reach a minimum of 130 degrees F
• Temperature decreases due to fewer and fewer ozone molecules to abosorb solar UV radiation
• Very little oxygen and nitrogen
• Sufficient gases to burn up incoming debris
• Most near earth objects burn up in this layer

• increased air temprature up to 1,830 degrees F due to solar radiation
• blocks morst of the harmful cosmic radiation (x-rays, gamma rasy, some UV)
• very few gas molecules - heat energy is actually lower
• Gases here are ionized (broken into constituent ions as solar radiation strips them of electrons)
• Ionized gases cause Auroras (inbteraction near the magnetic poles of electrons and prontons from the sun)

Gama rays, x rays, ultraviolet rays,

Visible light betewen 0.4 and 0.7

Infared (postitive 10), microwaves

(Earth's surface: Evaporation 23%; Infared Radiation 23%

Conduction and convection 7%

Absorbed by:

51% by the earth's surface

19% obsorbed by clouds

30% scattered and reflected from clouds

• Surfaces on earth with low albedo (absorb solar radiation and reradiate it as infrared (long wavelength) radiation
• This long wavelength infrare radiation is then absorbed by greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases (methane, nitrious oxide) in the troposphere
• This absoprtion causes the tropopshere to warm = the greenhouse effect!
• Keeps the earth livable91degrees F warmer than if there were no greenhouse effect
• Average surface temperature of earth would be 0 degrees F without it (as opposed to current average of 59 degrees F)
• Venus with so much Co2 in tis atmosphere, has a runaway greenhouse effect resulting in surface temperatures of up to 8677 degrees Farenheight

• The atmosphere contains a small portion of the erath's water
• The volume of water falling as precipitation announally is 30 times greater than the volume of water stored in atmosphere at any given time.
• Water is constantly cycled through the atmosphere
• Conversion of water from one state to another tranfers energy throughout the tropopsher

(Liquied water molecules together but separated some, gases, completely separated, ice nicely formed gases.)

Evaporation and condensation are extremely important. They occure over large areas. They conribute to weather phenomena and redistribution of heat in the atmosphere.

• The amount of moisture in the air
• Determined by evaporation and condensation
• Hot and humid go together, warm air is more able to hold moisture than cold air
• Air is saturated when it can hold no more water vapor at a given temperature.

• When cold air moves over warm water, some of the warm water evaporates (steam fog)
• When warm air moves over cold water, the air cools

Condensation occures when the relative humidity of air

Addition of water

Decrease in temperature

with increasing altitude

• It is expanding and cooling due to decreasing air pressure
• IT is moving farther away from the warm surface of the earth.

• air rises, cools, and water condenses
• water vapor has a surface to condense onto such as microscopic particles such as dust, smoke, salt, and pollutants)

• -38 degrees farenheight
• Supercooled water will only freeze if it is agitated or has a surface to freeze on.

• Cooling effect: due to reflection of solar radiation
• Warming effect: due to absorption by water vapor, a greenhouse gas.
• At present we don't know which effect is stronger.

• Cir (like cirocumulos bumpy/whispey high clods,m or cirrostatus, whispey thicker louds or cirus super wispy clouds)  means high level with wispy shape
• Alto = midlevel such as altocumulos (bumpyt a kinda), altotratus (hazy like)
• Nimbo or nimbus (indicates rain cloud
• Stratus clouds, cover the sky like a sheet.

Air rises naturallyif it is ligher than the surrouding air masses = density lifting (or convection)

Frontal lifting: = two air masses of diferent densities met, their boundary is a front. The lighter warm air rises above the colder denser air.

• Orographic lifting = air is forced to rise over an obstruction such as mountains.

• Convergence lifting = collision of two air masses of similar temperature forces some air upward since both air masses cannot occupy the same space.

• horizonatal movement of air that arises from differences in air pressure.
• Wind is characterizd by its speed and direction
• Direction refers to the direction from which the wind originates. (Isobar, lind of constant air pressure)

Chapter 15 quiz

Clouds absorb a large amount of solar radiation and also reflect a large amount of solar radiation (True or False)

For a hurricane to form, the ocean temperature must be at least

decreases

The most heavily populated area of the USA

• barometer 1643
• mercury thermometers *by farenheit and celsius)
• hygrometere (measure humidity) invited a few decades later

weather over large regions. The recognition of these basic types of air massses and their motions made it possible to develop rules for the evolution of weather systems. Later these rules were turend into mathematical equations that could be programmed into computers to produce forecasts.

Million surface, air and satellite weather observations every day.

over 100 doppeler radar sites nationwide used to track changes in regional storms

• a large region of the lower troposphere that has relatively uniform temperature and moisture content.
• They are identified by their temperature and the moisture characteristics of the underlying surface

• polar air masses found at highter latitudes
• Tropical air masses found near the equator
• maritime air masses develop above oceans and are wetter
• dry air masses form over continents
• there are no clear boundaries betwee these air masses. /They can migrate.

cA continental artica/antartic

cP continental polar

cT continental tropical

mP maritime polar

mT martine tropical

tornado

damaging wind speeds (faster than 58 mph)

penny sized or larger hair

Only 10% of the thunderstorms that form over the USA each year hve these conditions.

• narrow funnle shaped spirals of rapidly converging and rotating air that form in association with thunderstorms.
• near-circular low-pressure systems that rotate counterclockwise in the nothern hemisphere
• pressure gradient is much more intense for tornadoes
• tornadoes generate the strongest natural winds on earth.

• April 3, 1974
• Tornadoes spotted in Canadian boarder all the way to Gulf coast, from Illinoise to VA.
• 148 tornadoes touched down in 13 states
• 330 people kiled, over 5,000 injured.
• A massive single tornado threw two tracot trailers on to the room fo a bowling alley in Xenia, OH. Storm was speeding at 50mph
• 33 people killed, 1300 buildings destroyed in Xenia that day.

• Weak tornadoes can tear shingles off roofs,
• Strong tornatdoes can tear the roof off a house,
• violent tornadoes tear up the whole house.

• Funnels less than 2,000 feet wide
• Average funnel velocity 31 mph with highs of 125mph
• path of destruction typically 3-16 miles long
• Some may stay on the ground for over an hour and travel over 62 miles.

Tornadoes follow the path of their

parent thunderstorms, most travel east or north east as they are often associated with midlatitude cyclone thunderstorms.

updrafts below thunderstorm draw spiriling horizontal winds upwards to form a mesocycyclone within the larger storm cloud. These are rotating thunderstorms that can be seen on rader (up to 6 miles across)

Hurrican Katrina

more htan 1,300 died

100 billion dollars worth of damage

• High winds, heavy rainfull, storm surges along coastlines (Not all hurricanes get to land)
• Needs sufficient evaporation and condensantion to foster large volume of moisture to foster groth of huge cloud masses
• Warm surface waters move north from equator in teh summer in N. Hemisphere creating optimal hurricane conditions.
• Rising air cools and condensese to form cumulus clouds that will develop into cumulonimbus cells.
• Earth's rotation imprats a counterclockwise rotationstorm in the Northern Hemisphere. This rotation is zero at the equator, therefore the majority of  hurricanes originate between 10 and 20 degress N or S of the equator.
• To maintain wind speed, infow of air into developing low-pressure system must be mateched by outflow of air in the upper troposphere.

Tropical depression:

• Develops 1-2 weeks prior to landfall: Tropical depression develops winds 23-39 mph) after about 5 days this develops into a tropical storm (winds 39-74 mph) finally a hurricane develops (winds at least 119mph)
• Hurricanes will continue to grow in size and intensity as long as underlying water temperature remains above 80 degrees F
• Precipitation concentrates within 124 miles on either side of the eye, releasing up to 20 billion tons of water per day.

• surges.
• Damage can potentially reach inland areas up to 5-12 miles from shore.
• Can rain up to 24 inches in just a few days
• Damaging winds like tornados of F1-3

Catagory 3 hurricane'

in 1973 in Bangladesh..cyclone 22 foot storm surged, covered most low lyin plain killed 300,000 people.

Chapter 16 Begin

Each year polar bears migrate through

• Churchill Manitoba on their way to Hudson bay so they can hunt seals. 17% reduction in Hudson Bay polar bears in past 30 years. 
• They are trapped in trpas claled "jail" till Hudson bay freezes over.

A discriptiion of the weather conditions for a region averaged over several decades. The climate of every region on Earth has changed often.

Worst case scenario  regarding the steady decline in artic ice

• Higher temps reduce annual volume of sea ice exposing more open water in Arctic Ocean
• Water has lower albedo (lower whiteness) which absorbs more heat from sun
• Sea ice forms later in the fall and is thinner and not widespread. Melts earlier in spring.
• Melting of ice changes density and salinity of arctic ocean water.
• Freshwater input from Greenland further dilutes salt content.
• Reduction in sinking water at northern end of Gulf Stream can slow the conveyor belt
• Temperatures in the North Atlantic can decreas with slowing of Gulf Stream.

• Temperature increase is a short-term variation, and lower temperatures begin to prevail.
• Sea ice volume increases, increasing albedo and reducing absorption of heat
• Sea ice forms earlier in fall and stays around longer into spring
• Sea water salinity increases with increasing sea ice
• Less melting of ice sheet on Greenland and elsewhere
• Temperatures in N. Atlantic gradually decrease and return to levels similar to those of the 1980s
• (All this does not seem likely as warming trend continues each year. Eaight of the ten hottest years on record have occured in the last decade)

• Temperatures decrease with increasing latitude north and south from the equator. (The equator receives more solar energy.)
• Temperature range is much greater for the continents than for the oceans (Water has a high heat capacity)
• Clouds are concentrated in irregular bands parallel to the equator and latitudes 60 degrees N and S and these latitudes also have high precipitation and low atmospheric pressure (Desert belts are located around 30 degrees north and south latitude.)

cool air sinks from the poles (high pressure) and warm air rises from the equator (low pressure)

A difference in solar radiation causes differential heating, which produces convection cells that drive air circulation.

• Expands and rises at the equator forming a low-pressure system and nearly continuous band of clouds.
• The coriolis efect deflects winds ano the riht oin the N. Hemisphere adn to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• North moving air is continuously deflected east and is moving almost directly eastward by the time it reaches 30 degrees North (Subtropical Jet stream)

• The coriolis efect deflects winds ano the riht oin the N. Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Subtropical jet stream

61 mph

Winds in the core can reach speeds of more than 195 mph!

Tropical

Dry

Warm temeperate (32-64)

Cool temperate (32-50)

Polar

Highland

Characteristics of Extreme climate Enviornmnets

• Reduced biodiversity
• Low population density
• fall within dry and polar climate regions
• Greenland and Antartica repesent the world's largest accumulations of ice and slow

Glacier =

• long-lived mass of slow moving snow and ice on land
• Alpine glaciers are more suceptible to climate changes. Individual alpine glaciers may last for decades or up to thousand of years

Usually but not always there is high heat, (There are polar deserts)

less than 10 inches of precipitation per year

evapration exceeds precipitation

• Continental (very interior far from moisture sources)
• Coastal where cold ocean waters cool the air and it looses its moisture before reaching land
• Polar deserts: dry with little ice or snow
• Rainsadow Desergs: downwind side of a mountain range where the ranshadow effect has depleted air of its moisture before it descends down the landward side.

• Winds move sediments by suspension (fine particles),
• saltation (sand grains), and
• creep (larger particles). 
• Can form ripples in sand, and desert pavement where sand is removed and pebbles are left behind.