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DTC 370 Final Exam
medical nutrition therapy II
97
Nutrition
Undergraduate 4
04/18/2016

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Term
A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood stream
Definition
Endocrine gland
Term
hormone functions
Definition
Reproductive and sexual differentiation, growth and development, homeostasis, and regulation of metabolism and nutrient supply
Term
Three chemical classes of hormones
Definition
Proteins/peptidases (derivatives of amino acids), Amines (derivatives of tyrosine), and Steroids (derivatives of cholesterol)
Term
Amine hormones are secreted by...
Definition
Thyroid gland, adrenal medulla
Term
Steroid hormones are secreted by...
Definition
Adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta
Term
Peptide hormones are secreted by...
Definition
Hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary, pineal gland, kidneys, liver, heart, thymus, thyroid C cells, pancreas, GI tract, and thymus
Term
Cell responses to hormone stimulation
Definition
Changes in membrane permeability,enzyme synthesis, and Activation/inhibition of secretory activity; gene activation; and mitosis
Term
Major function, target cells, hormones of: Hypothalamus
Definition
Controls release of anterior pituitary hormones, Anterior pituitary, releasing and inhibiting hormones
Term
Major function, target cells, and hormones of Posterior Pituitary Gland
Definition
Increase H2O reabsorption, produce vasoconstriction, increase contractility, causes milk ejection. Target cells: Kidney tubules, arterioles, uterus, mammary glands. hormones: Vasopressin and Oxytocin
Term
What hormone stimulates t3 and t4 secretion?
Definition
TSH
Term
What hormone stimulates cortisol secretion?
Definition
ACTH (adrenal cortex)
Term
hormone that promotes breast development and stimulates milk secretion?
Definition
Prolactin (Mammary glands)
Term
hormone secreted that helps with bone and tissue growth?
Definition
GH (anterior pituitary gland)
Term
Hormone(s) secreted by the Thyroid gland that increases metabolic rate for growth and nerve development?
Definition
T3, T4 (Thyroid gland)
Term
Increased sodium reabsorption, increased K+ secretion caused by what hormone? Secreted from where?
Definition
Aldosterone ( Adrenal cortex), target cells: kidney tubules
Term
Effects of endocrine hypersecretion
Definition
Reduced plasma-protein binding of the hormone (too much free, biologically active hormone), decreased removal of hormone from blood (decreased inactivation, decreased excretion)
Term
Effects of endocrine hyposecretion
Definition
Increased removal of the hormone from the blood, abnormal tissue responsiveness to the hormone (lack of target cell receptors, lack of an enzyme essential to the target cell response)
Term
Daily release of T4 (amount)?
Definition
100-125mcg
Term
is t3 or t4 the active form? Where is it converted to the active form?
Definition
T3, converted in peripheral tissues
Term
Causes of Hypothyroidism?
Definition
Hashimotos Thyroiditis, Lymphocytic Thyroiditis, Thyroid destruction, Pituitary injury, medications, pituitary or hypothalamic disease.
Term
Clinical manifestations of hyperthyroidism
Definition
Endemic goiter, reduced BMR, cold intolerance, weight gain, easily fatigue, periorbital puffiness.
Term
Common causes of hyperthyroidism
Definition
Grave's disease, iodine induced, Excessive intake of thyroid hormone intake, Abnormal secretion of TSH, inflammation of thyroid
Term
Clinical manifestations of Hyperthyroidism
Definition
Palpuitations, nervousness, sweating, hyperdefecation, weight loss, heat intolerance, drooping eye lids, infrequent menstrual cycle
Term
Anterior pituitary: TSH
Definition
Thyroid gland --> Thyroid hormone (t3, t4) --> Increased metabolic rate
Term
Anterior pituitary: ACTH
Definition
Adrenal cortex --> Cortisol --> Stress response
Term
Anterior pituitary: Prolactin
Definition
Mammary gland --> Breast growth and milk secretion
Term
Anterior Pit: Growth hormones in liver
Definition
Liver--> Somatomedins--> Growth of bone and soft tissues
Term
What six hormones does the Anterior pit. gland secrete?
Definition
TSH, ACTH, GH, LH, FSH, Prolactin
Term
What 2 hormones does the Posterior Pit. gland secrete?
Definition
Vasopressin and oxytocin
Term
Pituitary disorders
Definition
Pituitary tumors, acromegaly, cushings syndrome, diabetes insipidus, hypopituitarism
Term
NCP for acromegaly
Definition
CHO controlled diet and energy intake
Term
labs, s/s of acromegaly
Definition
IGF-I levels high, GH >5x higher, skin tags, deepening voice, coarse leathery skin, excessive diaphoresis (sweating), oily skin
Term
cushings is caused by...
Definition
hypercorticolism
Term
What causes diabetes insipidus?
Definition
Insufficient production of vasopression (anti-diuretic hormone). Causes polyuria, polydipsia
Term
Differences of D. Insipidus vs. D. Mellitus
Definition
Urine doesn't contain glucose, no hyperglycemia, insufficient renal response to AVP former ADH
Term
what does the adrenal medulla release?
Definition
Catecholamines in response to stress
Term
Adrenal cortex secretes...
Definition
Aldosterone, cortisol, androgens, adrenocorticoid hormones
Term
More detailed now. What do the catecholamines from the adrenal medulla elicit?
Definition
Epinephrine: fight or flight, blood pressure. Norepinephrine: neurotransmitter released from sympathetic postganglionic fibers
Term
What does aldosterone do?
Definition
regulates sodium retention, fluid balance, blood volume
Term
True or false: Cortisol enhances lipolysis and stimulates protein degradation
Definition
True
Term
Insulin's effect on blood glucose
Definition
Increase glucose uptake and glycogenesis. Decrease glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Term
Counter regulatory hormones (against insulin)
Definition
Glucagon, cortisol, growth hormone, epineprhine
Term
Growth hormone effect on blood glucose
Definition
decrease glucose uptake by muscles, glucose sparing
Term
Cortisol effect on blood glucose
Definition
Increase gluconeogenesis. Decrease glucose uptake by tissues other than the brain; glucose sparing
Term
Epinephrine effect on blood glucose
Definition
Increased glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, glucagon secretion. Decreased insulin secretion
Term
Glucagon effect on blood glucose
Definition
Incerased glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis. Decreased glycogenesis
Term
True or false: all counter regulatory hormones increase lipolysis
Definition
True
Term
Parathyroid glands control the amount of ____ in the blood and bones
Definition
Calcium
Term
What three things happen when the parathyroid gland secretes PTH?
Definition
Release of stored calcium from bone (stim osteoclasts), enhanced reabsorption of calcium in kidneys, and stimulation of calcitriol production at kidneys; enhanced absorption of calcium by digestive tract
Term
normal calcium levels
Definition
8.5-11mg/dL
Term
What two things happen when the Thyroid gland produces calcitonin?
Definition
Increased calcium secretion in kidneys and increased calcium deposition in bones (inhibition of osteoclasts)
Term
Intervention for Hyperparathyroidism
Definition
Normalize serum phosphate, lower calcium diet, educate patient about low phosphorous diet, lower elevated serum and urinary calcium levels
Term
Secondary hyperparathyroidism is secondary to what other disease state?
Definition
Chronic renal failure (do not convert enough Vit.D and do not excrete phosphate.
Term
A glasgow coma score of 12 indicates...
Definition
a moderate head injury
Term
A glasgow coma score of 5 indicates...
Definition
A severe head injury
Term
A glasgow coma score of 15 indicates...
Definition
A minor head injury
Term
Consequences of metabolic stress are due to...
Definition
hormone release, acute-phase protein synthesis, hypermetabolism, increased reliance on gluconeogenesis, shifts in fluid balance, and reduced urine output
Term
response to starvation (late)
Definition
BMR lowers (20-25kcal/kg), energy from fat storage >90% of energy, energy from protein <10% for gluconeogenesis (protein store protected)
Term
Hypermetabolic state causes...
Definition
Excelerated energy expenditure, glucose production, glucose cycling in the liver and muscle, muscle breakdown, hyperglycemia (either from insulin resistance or excess glucose production via gluconeogenesis and cori cycle)
Term
Metaboli state in early starvation
Definition
decreased BMR, proteolysis, use stored glycogen within the first 24 hours,
Term
What system accounts for the majorit of proteolysis in skeletal muscle?
Definition
Ubiquitin-proteasome
Term
What is the lactate threshold?
Definition
Oxygen consumption exceeds our ability to clear lactate from the blood. Lactic acid and more importantly,protons build up and create an acidic environment that inhibits PFK-1, the rate liimiting enzyme in glycoloysis. Glycolysis slows when the rate-limiting enzyme is inhibited by the acidic environment.
Term
Rank the energy systems by the amount of ATP generated from one molecule of glucose
Definition
CrP (1 ATP), Anareobic (2 ATP), Aerobic (30-32 ATP)
Term
How is creatine rephosphorylated to CrP?
Definition
Oxidative phosphorylation
Term
How does extended starvation induce ketosis?
Definition
As starvation is prolonged, less and less glucose is used, therby reducing the amount of protein that must be catabolized to provide substrate for gluconeogenesis. As glucose use decreases, hepatic ketogenesis incrases and the brain adapts to the used of ketones as a partial energy source. Ketones eventually become the primary source as starvation continues.
Term
What does creatine kinase do? How is influenced by ATP and ADP levels?
Definition

Creatine kinase is the driving enzyme in the reaction of transferring a phosphate from CrP to an ADP molecule to produce creatine and ATP. 

Low ATP and High ADP levels increase creatine kinase activity. 

Term
Role of CHO, PRO, and FAT in NEGATIVE energy balance.
Definition

CHO: glycogen stores broken down

PRO: broken down and converted to glucose to produce energy for the brain, CNS, and other cells

FAT: Fatty acids used to create ketone bodies for energy in other cells

Term
Role of CHO, PRO, and FAT in Positive energy balance
Definition

CHO: broken down to glucose, stored in liver and muscles as glycogen, excess stored as fat.

PRO: amino acids used to replace body proteins, nitrogen lost to excretion, excess stored as fat

FAT: Fatty acids--> stored as body fat

Term
what are the final products of complete oxidation of glucose and fat?
Definition
CO2 + H2O
Term
Do you have to burn fat to lose weight? Why or why not?
Definition
No, you can lose fat free mass if the appropriate amino acids are not replaced after an energy deficit is created.
Term
Advantages and disadvantages of BIA
Definition

Advantages: safe, non-invasive, quick, cost-efficient, portable, easy to operate, 

Disadvantages: Affected by hydration status and electrolye balance

Term
Advantages and disadvantages of DEXA
Definition

Advantages: Gold standard in BMD measurment, non-invasive, safe if not pregnant, relatively portable

Disadvantages: metal rods/pins may throw off readings, table has a weight limit, expensive, radiation used, requires trained personnel

Term
Advantages and disadvantages of underwater weighing
Definition

Advantages: noninvasive, relatively precise for body fat measurement

Disadvantages: High equipment costs, uncomfortable for subjects, inability to measure gas volume in GI tract, assumption that density of lean body mass is relatively constant, when in fact bone density typically changes with age. 

Term
Things to consider when picking a method to assess body composition
Definition
Accuracy, training needed for staff, cost, portability, invasiveness, time.
Term
What are four major problems associated with alcoholism discussed in class?
Definition
High NADH:NAD+ ratio, Aldehyde toxicity, Substrate competition, induced metabolic tolerance
Term
Where is alcohol absorbed?
Definition
Throughout the entire digestive tract
Term
where is alcohol "digested"?
Definition
Alcohol metabolized and used for energy and stored as fat in the liver, no nutritional value
Term
Describe how a high NADH:NAD+ ration affects The TCA cycle
Definition
As NADH accumulates, it slows dehydrogenase reactions in the TCA cycle (isocitrate & alpha-ketoglutarate) slowing the activity of the overall cycle. This causes an accumulation of citrate which positively regulates acetyl-CoA carboxylase which converts acetyl CoA to malonyl-CoA (increases fatty acid synthesis from acetyl CoA).
Term
How does NADH:NAD+ ratio screw up metabolic systems?
Definition

The high ratio elicits the following responses:

  • Depletes alpha-ketoglutarate (transamination of amino acids in gluconeogenesis)
  • Shifts in DHAP--> G3P, favors G3P formation (back bone for fatty acid synthesis)
  • Slows TCA cycle by inhibiting dehydrogenase activity at alpha-ketog. and isocitrate
  • Increases amount of citrate, increased fatty acid synthesis
Term
How can ETOH be metabolized in the body?
Definition
Aldehyde dehydrogenase, MEOS, and catalase in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The first two are used more often.
Term
When ETOH is broken down to acetylaldehyde, what happens?
Definition
  • Acetaldehyde is able to attach to covalently to proteins and form protein adducts. If this adduct is involved with an enzyme, the activity of that enzyme will also be impaired.
  • Acetaldehyde impedes the formation of microtubules in hepatocytes and develops of perivenular fibrosis --> cirrhosis
Term
How does alcohol take part in substrate competition?
Definition
ADH competitively inhibits with retinol dehydrogenase, inhibiting the conversion of retinol to retinal.
Term
What is induced metabolic tolerance? How does it affect retinol status?
Definition

ETOH can induce enzymes of the MEOS, increasing the rate of metabolism of sbustrates oxidized by this system (CYP2E1). Although induction accelerates the hepatic oxidation product is not retinal but other polar, inert products of oxidation. 

The hepatic depletion of retinol can therefore be attributed to its accelerated metabolism, which is secondary to ETOH induction of a metabolizing enzyme. In effect, the alchoholi subject becomes tolerat to vitamin A, necessitating a higher dietary intake fo the vitamin to maintain normal hepatocyte concentrations. 

Term
What does the MEOS oxidize?
Definition
ETOH, barbiturate drugs, fatty acids, aromatic hydrocarbons, and steroids
Term
Explain how you build an alcohol tolerance.
Definition
Cytochrome P450 enzymes are inducible by ETOH, with increased synthesis of these substances, the hepatocytes can metabolize ETOH much more effectively, therby establishing a state of metabolic tolerance.
Term
Why do men have a higher tolerance for alcohol than women?
Definition
Higher gastric ADH activity in gastric mucosa in males results in a lower BAC--> higher tolerance for alcohol and lower risk of toxic effects on the liver.
Term
True or false: A high NADH:NAD+ ratio can result in lipogenesis and fatty liver
Definition
TRUE
Term
How are ADH and MEOS similar?
Definition
They both reduce NAD+ to NADH, they both break alcohol down from ETOH--> Acetaldehyde --> Acetate
Term
What metabolic systems are affected by a high NADH:NAD+ ratio?
Definition
increased fatty acid synthesis, decreased gluconeogenesis, decreased TCA cycle
Term
What are organism level effects of a high NADH:NAD+ ratio?
Definition
Weight gain, night-blindness, fatty liver,
Term
What are some of the body's adaptive responses to extended starvation?
Definition
Lower BMR, lipolysis, brain/cns uses ketone bodies as main energy source, protein-sparing
Term
What amino acids can creatine be made from?
Definition
Met + Arg + Gly= Creatine
Term
How many atp can be generated from one molecule of glucose moving through anaerobic glycolysis vs. Oxidative phosphorylation?
Definition
anaerobic (2-3) aerobic (30-32)
Term
Why can't we use anaerobic glycolysis to power us through a 3-4 minute sprint?
Definition
The lactate threshold will be met at some point. Not sustainable because replenishing the ATP requires more than it makes in the cori cycle (6atp in, 2 atp out)
Term
Why can't we use anaerobic glycolysis to power us through a 3-4 minute sprint?
Definition
The lactate threshold will be met at some point. Not sustainable because replenishing the ATP requires more than it makes in the cori cycle (6atp in, 2 atp out)
Term
How do we clear lactate that accumulates when anaerobic glycolysis is our predominant energy system?
Definition
Accumulated lactate moves into circulation and is taken up by aerobic tissues and converted to pyruvate --> glucose by the cori cycle.
Term
Day 3 starvation, 30% of the brain's energy is coming from ketones vs. day 40 ____%
Definition
70%
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