Term
| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) |
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Definition
| Vygotsky's term for tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children |
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Term
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Definition
| A term Vygotsky used to describe the changing level of support over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Building and changing schemas through direct contact with the environment |
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Definition
| Using current schemas to interpret the external world |
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Term
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Definition
| Creating new schemas or adjusting old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment fully |
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Term
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Definition
| When infants stumble onto a new experience caused by motor activity, they will repeat the event again and again to receive the same response and in turn, strengthen it |
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Term
| Primary Circular Reaction |
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Definition
| Repeating chance behaviors motivated by basic needs |
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Term
| Intentional or Goal-Directed Behavior |
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Definition
| Coordinating schemas deliberately to solve simple problems |
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Term
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Definition
| The understanding that objects still exist when out of sight |
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Term
| Tertiary Circular Reaction |
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Definition
| Toddlers repeat behaviors with variation |
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Term
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Definition
| Internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present |
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Term
| Core Knowledge Perspective |
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Definition
| Babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems |
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Term
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Definition
| Where sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly |
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Term
| Working or Short-Term Memory |
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Definition
| Where we actively apply mental strategies as we work on information |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the working memory that directs the flow of information |
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Term
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Definition
| Viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol |
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Term
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Definition
| Failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions |
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Definition
| The idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes |
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Term
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Definition
| Focusing on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features |
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Term
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Definition
| Inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem then reverse its direction, returning to the starting point |
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Definition
| Ability to order objects along a quantitative dimension |
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Term
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Definition
| Ability to seriate mentally |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental representations of familiar, large-scale spaces |
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Term
| Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning |
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Definition
| Start with a prediction about outcomes then they deduce logical, testable inferences |
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Term
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Definition
| Adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules |
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Term
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Definition
| The sound system of a language--includes the sounds used and how they may be combined |
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Term
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Definition
| The basic unit of sound in a language |
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Term
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Definition
| The units of meaning involved in word formation |
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Definition
| The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences |
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Term
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Definition
| The meanings of words and sentences |
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Term
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Definition
| The appropriate use of language in different contexts |
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Term
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Definition
| More frequently using words that link to objects |
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Term
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Definition
| Greater use of pronouns and socially linked words |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word's meaning |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives |
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Term
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Definition
| A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its referent so quickly |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| An approach that stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful. |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach that emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds |
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Term
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Definition
| Area in the left frontal lobe of the brain involved in producing words |
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Term
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Definition
| Region of the brain's left hemisphere involved in language comprehension |
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Term
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Definition
| Loss or impairment of language processing |
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Term
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
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Definition
| Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics |
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Term
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Definition
| Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences |
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Term
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Definition
| Rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence |
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Term
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Definition
| Restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said |
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Term
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Definition
| Identifying the names of objects |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual's level of mental development relative to others |
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Term
| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
| An individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100; devised in 1912 by William Stern |
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Term
| Triarchic Theory of Intelligence |
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Definition
| Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in oneself and others |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to reason abstractly; begins to decline in middle adulthood. Ability to solve new problems; not taught; free of cultural influence |
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Term
| Crystallized Intelligence |
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Definition
| An individual's accumulated information and verbal skills; continues to increase with age. Ability to solve problems based on acquired knowledge; depends on education and culture |
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Term
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Definition
| The portion of the variance in a population that is attributed to genes |
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Term
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Definition
| The worldwide increase in intelligence test scores that has occurred over a short time frame |
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Term
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Definition
| Intelligence tests that are intended to not be culturally biased |
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Term
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Definition
| The anxiety that one's behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one's group |
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Term
| Developmental Quotient (DQ) |
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Definition
| An overall developmental score that combines subscores on motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants |
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Term
| Bayley Scales of Infant Development |
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Definition
| Widely used scales for assessing infant development. The current version has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socio-emotional, and adaptive; the first three are administered to the infant, the latter two to the caregiver |
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Term
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Definition
| The "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain as developed through evolution; involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization |
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Term
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Definition
| The culture-based "software" of the mind; include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life |
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Term
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Definition
| Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition of limited mental ability in which the individual 1) has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test; 2) has difficulty adapting to everyday life; and 3) has an onset of these characteristics by age 18 |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental retardation caused by a genetic disorder or by brain damage |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that produces many answers to the same question; characteristic of creativity |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that produces one correct answer; characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests |
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Term
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Definition
| Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotions that are present in humans and other animals, emerge early in life, and are culturally universal; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotions that require consciousness and a sense of "me"; they include empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt, most of which first appear at some point in the second half of the first year through the second year |
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Term
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Definition
| A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry |
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Term
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Definition
| A cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords |
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Term
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Definition
| A sudden, initial loud cry followed by breath holding, without preliminary moaning |
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Term
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Definition
| A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep. |
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Term
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Definition
| A smile in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development, typically is a face |
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Term
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Definition
| Infants communicate preexisting positive emotion by smiling at an object then turning their smile toward an adult |
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Term
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Definition
| An infant's fear of and wariness toward strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life |
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Term
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Definition
| Reaction that occurs when infants experience a fear of being separated from a caregiver, which results in crying when the caregiver leaves |
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Term
| Socioemotional Selectivity Theory |
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Definition
| The theory that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding |
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Term
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Definition
| A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and adapts easily to new experiences |
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Term
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Definition
| A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change |
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Term
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Definition
| A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood |
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Term
| Inhibition to the Unfamiliar |
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Definition
| Temperament characterized by reacting to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect |
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Term
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Definition
| A Rothbart and Bates' classification of temperament uncluding "positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking" |
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Term
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Definition
| A Rothbart and Bates' classification of temperament including "fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort"; children are easily distressed and may fret and cry often |
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Term
| Effortful Control (Self-Regulation) |
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Definition
| A Rothbart and Bates' classification of temperament including "attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure"; infants high in this show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too high and have strategies for soothing themselves |
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Term
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Definition
| The match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with |
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Term
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Definition
| A method in which the caregiver alternates between engaging in face-to-face interaction with the infant and remaining still and unresponsive |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when the caregiver and infant focus on the same object or event |
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Term
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Definition
| "Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation |
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Term
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Definition
| Ainsworth's observational measure of infant attachment to a caregiver that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order |
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Term
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Definition
| Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the mother |
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Term
| Insecure Resistant Babies |
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Definition
| Babies who might cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away |
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Term
| Insecure Disorganized Babies |
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Definition
| Babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented |
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Term
| Dismissing-Avoidant Attachment |
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Definition
| An insecure attachment style in which adolescents de-emphasize the importance of attachment; is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregivers |
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Term
| Preoccupied-Ambivalent Attachment |
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Definition
| An insecure attachment style in which adolescents are hyper-tuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to occur mainly because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent |
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Term
| Unresolved-Disorganized Attachment |
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Definition
| An insecure attachment style in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and is often disoriented. These may result from such traumatic experiences as a parent's death of abuse by parents |
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Term
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Definition
| An attachment style that describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned or stressed out about their romantic relationships |
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Term
| Avoidant Attachment Style |
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Definition
| An attachment style that describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend to distance themselves |
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Term
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Definition
| An attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive |
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Term
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Definition
| Also called passionate love, or eros, this type of love has strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship |
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Term
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Definition
| Also called companionate love, this type of love occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person |
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Term
| Triangular Theory of Love |
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Definition
| Sternberg's theory that love includes three types--passion, intimacy, and commitment |
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Term
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Definition
| The characteristics of people as males and females |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, or feel |
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Term
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Definition
| Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
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Term
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Definition
| A class of sex hormones--an important one of which is estradiol--that primarily influences the development of female sex characteristics and helps regulate the menstrual cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| A class of sex hormones--an important one of which is testosterone-- that primarily promotes the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| Eagly's theory that psychological gender differences are caused by the contrasting social roles of women and men |
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Term
| Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender |
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Definition
| Stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent, then, at 5 or 6 years of age, renounce the attraction because of anxious feelings, subsequently identifying with the same-sex parent and unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics |
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Term
| Social Cognitive Theory of Gender |
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Definition
| The idea that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, as well as through the rewards and punishment children experience for behaviors believed to be appropriate or inappropriate for their gender |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture |
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Term
| Gender-Intensification Hypothesis |
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Definition
| The view that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles |
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Term
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Definition
| The language of conversation; a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships; preferred by women |
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Term
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Definition
| Language designed to give information, including public speaking; preferred by men |
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