Term
Themes and Foundations
Major themes in Child development are.... |
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Definition
Nature/Nurture
Continuity/Discontinuity
Sociocultural Influence
The “Active Child”
Individual Differences (Resilience) |
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Definition
Nature AND Nurture
Risk and resilience
Study on Hawaiian island of children personality, I.Q. and police records
Schizophrenia
Children of schizophrenic parents more likely to develop it NATURE
Children growing up in troubled homes more likely to develop it regardless of parental diagnoses NUTRUE |
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Term
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Definition
Developed fundamentally more continuous or discontinuous
Depends on..
How you look at it
How often you look at it
What aspect of development you study
Childs ability to read is relatively continuous
Motor abilities might appear to be more stage like, crawling, walking (discontinuous) |
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Term
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Definition
Physical -
House, daycare, school, urban vs. rural neighborhood
Social -
Parents, siblings, other family members, teachers, peers
Economic -
National wealth, social wealth, family/individual wealth
Cultural -
Language, values, traditions, attitudes, beliefs, technology
Historical -
Influences all these other factors
Cross-cultural studies as methodology |
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Term
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Definition
The idea that individuals play a role in their own development
Examples of the active child:
1) Preferences to attend to certain things
People over objects, caregiver over others
2) Motivated to learn
Little ‘experiments’ (dropping food)
Practice language when alone
Pretend play
3) Actively select their own environment
Friends they play with
Activities they engage in, places they go etc. |
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Term
| Individual Differences (Resilience) |
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Definition
Possible sources?
Genes
Treatment – by other people
Subjective reactions – to other people treatment
Choice of environments |
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Term
| The First Developmental Study |
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Definition
In Ancient Egypt to see if Egyptian was the original language
Psammetichus II
Had Egyptian Shepard cut out his tongue so his kids cannot hear any language. No Egyptian no frigian, first words “Bekos” frigian for bread |
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Term
| Philosophical Foundational View’s of Childhood |
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Definition
Aristotle
Plato
Locke
Rousseau |
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Definition
All knowledge comes from experience
Child rearing should adjust to needs of child |
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Definition
Born with innate knowledge
Strict-discipline and self control |
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Definition
Tabula Rasa = ‘blank slate’
Emphasized NURTURE
Importance of early strict parenting |
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Definition
Innately good – ‘noble savage’
Emphasized NATURE
Child learns via spontaneous interactions with objects not instructions
Formal education begin at age of reason |
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Term
| The Contribution of Darwin |
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Definition
Theory of evolution (examination of human species)
Biographical Sketch of an Infant
Diary of own children development
From son Willem’s birth to 5 yrs.
Day to day, follow candle with his eyes 9th day
Daughter Elizabeth birth to lesser degree |
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Term
Controlled-Rearing Studies (Modern Studies) AKA
DEPRIVATION STUDIES |
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Definition
Behavioral studies with animals
Behavioral studies with infants
Naturalistic studies
Child abuse cases |
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Term
| Behavioral studies with animals |
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Definition
| Depth perception and fear of heights |
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Term
| Behavioral studies with infants |
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Definition
| Not growing up with toy trucks and seeing the association with real trucks |
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Term
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Definition
Cataract Patients
3rd world countries some children have them until 18, when they can see can they recognize faces |
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Definition
| "Genie" - almost impossible to teach her, no linguistic experience or interactions |
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Term
Methods:
The Scientific Method |
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Definition
Choose a question to be answered
Formulate a hypothesis or prediction about the answer
Develop a method for testing the hypothesis
Interpret the obtained data and draw a conclusion |
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Term
Criteria for Good Measurement
(in the Scientific method) |
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Definition
1) A measure should be directly related to hypothesis
2) Good measures should posses strong reliability |
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Term
A measure should be directly related to hypothesis
(Criteria for Good Measurement) |
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Definition
• example: judging curriculums --> correct answers
• example: infants’ color preference --> relative looking-time |
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Term
2) Good measures should posses strong.....
(Criteria for Good Measurement) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Independent measures of a given behavior are consistent
Two types
1- test-retest
2- interrater |
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Term
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Definition
| The amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Attained when measures of performance are similar on two or more occasions |
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Term
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Definition
Experiment measures what is intended to measurer
2 Types:
Internal validity
External validity |
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Term
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Definition
Effects observed due to the variables the researcher intentionally manipulated
“Confounds” decrease this |
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Term
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Definition
| Results can generalize beyond the particulars of the research |
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Term
| Three Methodological Context for gathering data |
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Definition
1. Interviews
2. Naturalistic Observation
3. Structures Observation |
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Term
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Definition
Structured interview- all participants are asked to answer the same questions
Clinical interview- questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
Caveat – answers are biased |
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Term
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Definition
Describe how children behave in their usual environments
Limitations:
What causes what?
Target behavior may not be observed during session |
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Term
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Definition
Present identical situation to all children and record each child’s behavior
Enabled direct comparisons of different children’s behavior
Limitation?
-->Less information about children’s subjective experiences (unlike interviews), less natural situation (unlike naturalistic observation)
Ex- Following parents instructions |
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Term
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Definition
A correlation is the association between two variables
Primary goal is to determine how variables are related to one another |
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Term
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Definition
Changes in one variable accompanied by systematic changes in another variable in the same direction
Ex graph line going up right corner |
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Definition
Changes in one variable accompanied by systematic changes in another variable in the opposite direction
Example line going down right corner |
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Term
| Correlation Coefficient ® |
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Definition
| Statistic summarizing strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (range = 1.0 to 1.0) |
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Term
| Correlation NOT = Causation |
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Definition
1.) Direction-of-causation problem
2) Third-variable problem |
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Term
| Direction-of-causation problem |
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Definition
| It is not possible to tell from a correlation which variable is the cause and which is the effect |
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Term
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Definition
| a correlation between two variable may arise from both being influenced by some third variable |
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Term
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Definition
| a correlation between two variable may arise from both being influenced by some third variable |
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Term
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Definition
| Group receives the independent variable |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Is a behavior that is hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable not the control |
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Term
| Designs for Examining Development |
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Definition
Cross Sectional
&
Longitudinal |
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Term
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Definition
Children on different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time
Limitations: patterns of change? |
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Term
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Definition
Same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
Limitations: selective attrition, rehearsal effects |
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Term
Early Ideas of Nature of Development...
(2) |
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Definition
1) Quantitative change:
2) Qualitative change: |
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Term
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Definition
Preformation
Spermists vs ovists
1695 by Dutch scientist |
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Term
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Definition
Aristotle: Epigenesis
Not embraced until modern study |
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Term
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Pre-Natal Development
Three major periods of prenatal development... |
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Definition
1) Period of the ZYGOTE
2) Period of the EMBRYO
3) Period of the FETUS |
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Term
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Definition
Conception – 2 weeks
Germinal Phase
Division of cells that results in a blastocyst
A mass of cells
Beginning of placenta
Three layers
Outside
Hollow inside
Fluid, amniotic sac
Massive section
Stem cells
Forms embryos
Identical twins=split of inner cell mass |
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Term
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Definition
3rd to 8th week
Embryonic Phase
(~22 day) neural tube: U-shaped groove formed from the top layer of the differentiated cells in the embryo
Folic acid helps close this hole
Lack can lead to spina bifida
Embryonic support system
Placenta
Permits the exchange of material between blood and stream of the fetus and mother
Umbilical Cord
The tube that contains the blood vessels that travel
Cephalocaudal Development
From the point on areas near head develop earlier than those far away
Face development
Cleft pallet
Heart beat |
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Term
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Definition
9th to Birth
Fetal Phase
Protecting the fetus
Placental membrane
Barrier against some but not all toxins and infections agents
Amniotic Sac
Protective membrane filled with fluid which the fetus floats
Fetus at 18 weeks
Some reflexive behaviors
Sucking thumb
Preparation for breast feeding, muscle preparation
Active child**
Individuals play a role in their own development though own actions |
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Term
| 4 major developmental processes in CELL DEVELOPMENT |
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Definition
1) Cell division
2) Cell migration
3) Cell differentiation
4) Selective cell death (apoptosis)
Apoptosis gone wrong = webbed feet |
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Term
| Cephalocaudal Development |
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Definition
| - From this point on, areas near the head develop earlier than those far away. |
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Term
| Studies that documented the operation of different sensations in utero |
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Definition
A taste for test
Smell
Hearing
Sensory Learning |
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Term
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Definition
Mothers with polyhydramnios (too much amniotic fluid)
Began to try and solve it which lead to extermination
If pump in sugary substance will baby drink more?
Measured the amount of colored fluid in mothers urine and INFANTS CAN TASTE |
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Term
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Definition
Comparative studies with rats how do animals know where to find their mothers nipples
Scent of amniotic fluid
Similar with human infants |
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Term
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Definition
Some sound does permeate the womb
~6 mos. external noises elicit movement/heart rate changes
Evidence for hearing and short-term learning |
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Term
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Definition
Additional taste/smell results (carrots after 5 mos.)
Hearing: newborn infants can recognize rhythms in utero
Cat in the hat study
Example: newborns cry their native language
Difference in German and French |
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Term
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Definition
12 weeks after gestation, most movements present at birth have appeared.
i.e.
swallowing - amniotic fluid promotes development of the palate & aids maturation of the digestive system
fetal breathing - exercise of the lungs & diaphragm; 50% of the time
>the fetus is its own contributor to its development< |
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Term
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Definition
All human fetuses develop wither male of female genitalia depending on the presence or absence of testosterone
Active child: generate the testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
1>Environmental agents that have the potential to cause harm during prenatal development
2> Thalidomide – for morning sickness
3>Alcohol (most common) |
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Term
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Definition
“Dose-response” relation
Individual/species differences
“Sleeper” effects
Mitigated by sensitive period |
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Term
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Definition
– for morning sickness
10,000 babies in 46 countries, stunted the growth of their arms and legs |
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Term
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Definition
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Maternal alcoholism associated with facial deformity, mental retardation, attention problems, hyperactivity and more
~1 in every 1,000 infants born in U.S. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons *brains has ~100 billion neurons |
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Term
| Neurons have ... Three components: |
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Definition
Cell body - Basic biological material
Dendrites - Fibers that receive input
Axon - Fiber that sends electrical signals away |
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Term
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Definition
| Junctions between axons and dendrites where communication takes place by means of electrical-chemical signals |
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Term
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Definition
Perform variety of support functions -->
Form myelin sheath around certain axons
Guide migration of neurons
Remove dead neurons
Glial cells outnumber neurons! |
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Term
Developmental process (growth) that bring the brain into being
..... (6) |
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Definition
1>Neurogenesis
2>Myelination
3>Differentiation
4>Migration
5>Synaptogenesis
6>Synapse Elimination |
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Term
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Definition
The proliferation of neurons via cell division
Up to 250,000 per minute |
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Term
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Definition
| Fatty layer (myelin) accumulates around nerve cells, begins before birth and continues into adolescence |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase in size and complexity of dendrites as they branch out, mainly after birth |
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Term
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Definition
| Movement of neurons from one location to another in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which neurons from synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections |
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Term
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Definition
| Synapse “pruning” eliminates surplus connections |
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Term
| Experience-Expectant VS. Experience-Dependent |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Brain wiring occurs due to normal experience common across all people and present over the course of evolution
The bad: vulnerability
If an “expected” experience does not occur, unstimulated neurons may be “pruned” and deficits may result (blindness, deafness, light deprivation ex) |
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Term
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Definition
– in experience-expectant plasticity, timing matters!
Neural organization that does/doesn’t occur is typically irreversible
Compensatory rewiring
Congenital deafness = enhanced visual processing
Congenital blindness = better pitch discrimination (VIDEO of the blind kid that can play basketball) |
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Term
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Definition
The capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
Use it or lose it “neural Darwinism” |
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Term
| Experience-Dependent Plasticity |
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Definition
Neural connections are created and reorganized thought-out life as a function of individual experience that differs between people
Rats raised in complex vs less complex environment
More synapses per neuron
More supportive tissue
Perform better learning tasks
Expert skills in human
Violinists/cellists and braille readers
Increased cortical representation for left hands |
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Term
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Definition
Less information needs to be stored in genes
Allows adaptation to unforeseen environments
NATURE AND NURTURE |
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Term
| Brain Damage and Recovery |
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Definition
The best time = early childhood
Synapse generation and pruning are occurring
Plasticity is highest and brain can rewire
The worst time = early stages of prenatal development to ~1
Interrupts neurogenesis and neuron migration
Ex radiation and Japanese mothers |
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Term
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Definition
| Gregor Mendal first modern theory of inheritance |
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Term
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Definition
believed he could turn a baby into any ‘type’ of person: thief, doctor, teacher
Genetic and environmental influences are entangled in complex way |
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Term
Key elements
(GENETICS& HEREDITY) |
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Definition
Genotype –
Phenotype –
Environment – |
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Term
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Definition
| – genetic material you inherit |
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Term
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Definition
| – expression of genotype (appearance, behavior) |
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Term
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Definition
| – every aspect of your surroundings |
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Term
| Relationship between Chromosomes, DNA and genes |
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Definition
Chromosomes- packing for our genetic material (DNA)
46 chromosomes
About 30,00 genes
Karyotype -
46 chromosomes: 23 pairs
Sex Cells -
AKA gametes, contain 23 chromosomes, half normal amount
Such “haploid” cells formed though special cell division meiosis |
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Term
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Definition
Mitosis is normal cell reproduction
Meiosis is sex cell reproduction- an additional stage when cells divide again and your left with one chromosome from that pair instead of two |
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Term
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Definition
| Trisomy 21 aka down syndrome |
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Term
| Mechanisms of Genetic Variation |
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Definition
Mutations –
Random Assortment
Gene Expression (simplest) –
Dominant Inheritance
Recessive Inheritance |
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Term
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Definition
| – changes in sections of DNA caused by random or environmental factors |
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Term
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Definition
| - shuffling of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the sperm and egg; chance determines which member of the pair goes into the new sperm and egg ~ 64 trillion unique combinations in shuffling |
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Term
| Gene Expression (simplest) |
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Definition
– alleles (different forms of genes that influence the same trait
1/3 human genes have two or more |
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Term
| Dominant Recessive Pattern |
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Definition
The dominant allele is the form of the gene that is expressed if present
The recessive allele is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
A person who inherits two of the same alleles for a trail is described as homozygous
A person who inherits two different alleles for a trait is described at heterozygous |
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Term
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Definition
| Huntington’s disease is an example of a dominant disorder (everyone with abnormal gene has the disease) |
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Term
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Definition
Person who inherits one copy of the gene does not get the disease bc the normal allele predominates
However the person who carries the gene has the chance of passing in onto children, if both carries the gene their child has a ¼ chance of receiving a recessive allele from each parent |
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Term
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Definition
Alleles passed to child on sex chromosomes
Most inherited sex-linked characteristics carried on X CHROMOSOME (bc larger than y)
Males more susceptible to genetic defects
Females: one X is bad the other can take over
Males only have one X
Ex male pattern baldness, color blindness etc |
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Term
Complications
(of Sex-Linked Traits) |
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Definition
Other patterns
Polygenic – |
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Term
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Definition
Only a few traits follow simple dominant-recessive pattern
“Codominance” – a single gene with >1 dominant allele
Ex single gene can affect multiple
Both alleles can be expressed of blended
Different expression depending on whether they came from mom or dad |
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Term
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Definition
“Many genes” can also then interact with environmental factors
Ex shyness, aggression, empathy
Schizophrenia, ADHD |
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Term
| How can Identical Twins be Different? |
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Definition
| Relationship between Environment & Phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to all the phenotypes that could theoretically result from a given genotype, in relation to all the environments in which it could survive and develop |
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Term
| Even within same individual |
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Definition
Himalayan Rabbit
The effect of environment on the expression of a gene for fur color |
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Term
| Human Example: Phenylketonuria PKU |
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Definition
Defective gene on chromosome 12
Unable to metabolize phenylalanine
Mental retardation can be avoided by early diagnosis and proper diet |
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Term
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Definition
X-linked gene that inhibits brain release of brain chemicals associated with aggression
Warrior gene |
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Term
| Identical twins: Environmental effects |
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Definition
| *Picture one smoked longer than the other |
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Term
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Definition
Control the continuous switching on and off of genes that underlie development across the lifespan
A given gene influenced development and behavior only when it is turned on
Activation is affected by the genes environment
EPIGENETICS
Analogy
Computer hardware = genome
Computer software = epigenome |
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Term
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Definition
Before genes don’t change
Epigenetics: the environment can change your genes (how they are expressed)
Become less similar with age
Good news
The environment we select can compensate for ‘bad’ genes
Bad/good news
The environment we select my be inherited by our children |
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Term
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Definition
Lamarck>
Neck stretches and becomes longer
Driven by ‘inner need’
Trait passed down to offspring
Darwin>
Some born with longer necks
More successful traits passed down |
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Term
| Inheriting your Epigenome |
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Definition
Long-term effect of feast and famine during the 1800’s
In regard to childhood asthma
Controlled Example (rat cherry blossom) |
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Term
| Long-term effect of feast and famine during the 1800’s |
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Definition
100 people born in 1905
Determined food supply for relatives from records
Kids who went from normal eating to gluttony in single season had sons and grandsons who lived shorter lives
6-32 year life expectancy difference |
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Term
| In regard to childhood asthma |
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Definition
Smoking mother 1.5x more likely
Smoking grandmother 2.1x more likely
Non-smoking mother/smoking grandmother 1.8x |
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Term
| Controlled Example (rat cherry blossom) |
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Definition
Reaction to smell was 200% stronger if their father was trained with that smell even before they were conceived
Even grandchildren without any prior experience |
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Term
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Definition
Epigenome: just as important as genome
The epigenome can be changed
Epigenome can be inherited and passed down |
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Term
| Nature and Nurture/ Genes and Environment |
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Definition
Genetic limitations
Behavioral Genetics |
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Term
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Definition
Traits of most interest typically are
Polygenic = affected by combination of many genes
Multifactorial = affected by many environmental factors
Its not easy to tease apart factors affecting the development of behavior or ability |
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Term
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Definition
How does variation in behavior and development result from the interaction of genetics and environment?
Assumptions of Behavioral Genetics
1) To the extent that genetic factors underlie a given trait..
Genotypic similarity phenotypic similarity
2) To the extent that environmental factors underlie a given trait
Individuals who are reared together would be more similar than those reared apart |
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Term
| Types of Environmental Influences (2) |
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Definition
1) Shared Environment
2) Non-shared Environment effects |
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Term
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Definition
Degree of similarity among biologically unrelated siblings (adoptive, half-siblings)
Substantial influence of shared environment on:
Positive affect (emotion) in young children
Little influence of shared environment on:
Personality (correlations b/t adoptive siblings ~0)
Schizophrenia |
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Term
| 2) Non-shared Environment effects |
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Definition
= effects of the environment unique to the individual
Birth order
Experiencing parents’ behavior differently
Being affected differently by shared experiences (divorce)
The motivation of siblings to differentiate themselves from one another
Isolated trauma
For identical twins reared together any difference b/t them must be due to non-shared environments |
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Term
| Children as Environmental Creators |
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Definition
Children are active creators of their environment
Behavior evokes certain responses from others
Actively select surroundings and experiences based on interests, talents and personality characteristics
‘Niche-selection’ |
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Term
| Behavioral Genetic Research Designs (4) |
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Definition
1>Family studies
2>Twin studies
3>Adoption-Studies
4>Adoptive-Twin-studies |
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Term
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Definition
| Correlate trait scores for pairs of individuals with varying degrees of relatedness |
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Term
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Definition
Compares correlations b/t identical (monozygotic) and same-sex fraternal twins (dizygotic)
Identical twins share 10% of genes
Fraternal twins 50%
Assume environment is equal for both types of twins |
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Term
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Definition
| Examines whether adopted children’s scores for a given trait are more highly correlated with those of their biological parents or their adoptive |
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Term
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Definition
Best of both worlds
Compare similarity between identical twins who grew up together and those reared apart |
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Term
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Definition
The amount of variability in a trait that is attributed to genetic influences in a given population
Minnesota Twin Study
Extensive study of identical twins (>100) separated early in life
Given extensive battery of physiological and psychological tests
CAVEAT: similarity of environment persists
Strong Heritability
Some personality
Life expectancy
Certain attitudes
Weak Heritability
Some personality
Spouse similarity
These correlations mean, substantial heritability has been reported for several different traits including
Infant activity level, temperament, reading disability, antisocial behavior, political affiliation, divorce, tv viewing
No specific genes that underline behaviors or traits
Groups not Individuals
They describe differences within populations, scores do not apply to make-up of individuals
More limitations
They apply only to a particular group living at a particular time
Can differ markedly for groups of people who grow up in very different environment
High heritability does not imply immutability
They say nothing about the meaning of differences between groups |
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Term
PERCEPTION
Difference between Sensation and Perception |
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Definition
Sensation
The low-level processing of basic information from the external world by sensory receptors
The ‘output’ of out senses alone cannot directly lead to accurate experience of the world
Holding a pencil
Two sensations, one perception
Perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about the objects, events and spatial layout
Mind takes educated guess
Low-level
Acuity, color, brightness
Mid-level
Pattern, depth, objects
High-level
Recognition, categorization, intermodal correspondence |
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Term
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Definition
Locke – blank slate
James- infants world buzzing confusion
Piaget- infants world is picture lacking depth or identity |
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Term
How to test?
(2 main methods) |
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Definition
Problem- infants cant do much
Solution- use looking time
2 main methods
1) Preferential Looking
2) Habituation |
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Term
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Definition
Measuring looking time to each side for side preference
Preference for patterns, infants can SEE
But how well?
Visual acuity in infants: first test
Vary strip width
Find smallest width at which infants of given age show preference for stripes over grey
Visual Acuity: Brain Methods
Measure degree of electrical activity evoked by different displays
More sensitive
More valid
Causes change?
Astigmatism: Stimuli at different orientations perceived at different levels of acuity
Adults: irregularly shaped lens
Infant: irregularly shaped eyeball
Nature AND Nurture
Retina growth determined by brain wiring and experience |
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Term
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Definition
Color perception?
Limitations in the early months (0-3 months)
Poorer in 1st month, highly saturated red at birth
3 months + is adult like
Visuomotor Abilities
Scanning
1 month olds scan the perimeters of shapes
2 month olds scan both the perimeters and interiors of shapes
Tracking
Cannot track even slowly moving objects smoothly until 2-3 months |
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Term
| Depth Perception- how does it develop? |
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Definition
Learning by association?
Less effort to focus can touch
More effort to focus cant touch
Discovery, newborn goats on a rock wont step off, vision or touch?
The visual cliff
Animal results, all goats crossed the shallow side no goats crossed the deep side
INNATE capacity to perceive/avoid visual drop-off
Human results, similar to other animals on the visual cliff |
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Term
| 3 types of cues for depth perception... |
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Definition
1>Binocular
~3-4 mos.
2>Monocular (pictorial)
Linear perception, texture
3>Dynamic |
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Term
| How would you test whether infants perceive this a single continuous road? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Ability to analyze/integrate separate elements of a display into a coherent patter
Subjective or illusory contours
Dis-Habituation test
Innate pattern perception
Nature built in patterns to help avoid predators
Face perception
New born look longer at faces
Bc infants have innate template of human face
Newborn infants extremely minimal template of a human face; top heavy oval pattern
Infants recognize and prefer their mothers face after about 12 cumulative house of exposure
Infants learn to distinguish human faces over the first 9 months
Test, can tell human face but not monkey face pattern |
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Term
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Definition
A developmental process during which the brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilities
Improves the perception of things that people experience often and a decline in the ability to perceive some things to which they are not often exposed |
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