personality: the unique pattern of temperament, emotions, interests and intellectual abilities that a child develops as the child's innate propensities and capabilities are shaped by his or her social interactions with kin and community.

temperament: term for individual modes of repsonding to environment that appear to be consisten across situations and stable over time. 

theory: enduring affectional bond between child and mother serves adaptive function of preserving proximity to mother in order to protect infant. Proposed a critical period for attachment.

From Strange Situation Procedure.

Anxious Avoidant- avoid mother on re-entry.

Secure- wants to be near mother.

Anxious resistant- wants to be near but is angry at mother.

Disorganized- contradictory, confused behavior, freezing, undirected movements.

Enriched orphanage environment.

The aim of Hodges and Tizard's study was to examine the effect of institutional upbringing on later attachments.

They found that children who are deprived of close and lasting attachments to adults in their first years of life can make such attachments later, although this does depend on the adults concerned and how much they nurture such attachments.

Rather than there being a critical period it is possible to argue that there is a sensitive period for the development of behaviour.

studied Romanian orphans that had been raised since birth in institutions where nurses were strongly discouraged forming relationship with the children.

10 male orphans who were adopted around 2 years of age were placed with families in the UK. Rutter found that all orphans developed emotional problems later in life and that they had difficulties forming relationships with their peers.

• babies are reinforced for producing a particular response in the presence of particular stimuli
• see if they will generalize between stimuli
• for newborn, sucking is a response that shows interest in a certain stimuli

• presenting a stimulus repeatedly over time. with repeated presentations, responses diminish
• if no recovery of response at new stimulus, baby can't tell new from old stimulus
• categorical habituation is a variation of this
  • present categories rather than same. new=different from original category

• distress method (visual cliff e.g. for depth discrimination)
• pre-existing emotional responses
• looming stimuli (gaze aversion, defensive reaction, opening of mouth, startle blink)

• babies contol how long they look at things
• their looking is selective. looking times.

newborns look longer at face stimuli than scrambled features face stimuli.

however, turati's study did not support this. he concluded that babies look longer at stimuli with more "top" elements 

at 4 months babies can discriminate between men and women

by 5-7 months, babies shown happy/sad face will show recovery when switched

babies had difficulty grouping toothy/non-toothy smiles. confused toothy smiles with anger. 

direction of gaze is important in human interactions. you look where someone else is looking.

develops by 10 months. by 9-15 months, babies use direction of gaze and pointing more.

at 5 months, smile less at non eye to eye contact. 

Babies will look where an object was, but then look away. Object doesn't have independent existence once it is out of sight

Age: 0-4 months 

children become better at anticipating/extrapolating trajectory of object. Succeed in grasping a partially visible object. Babies will not uncover covered object.

(the lack of uncovering is not a motoric limitation. auditory stimulation is not enough to make them uncover, nor are tactile (touch) cues. babies need visual contact with object)

Age: 4-8 months 

at 8 months, babies will uncover a hidden object.  but continue to make A not B error. 

Age: 8-12 Months 

Unseen displacements baffle a child. A not B mastered.

Age: 12-18 Months

Mastery of object permanence

Age: >18 

Infants can hear prenatally (prefer sound of mother's voice as it was in womb to mother's voice)

Develop sound localization by age 1 

Babies stare longer at impossible events. 

In the habituation event the screen is unimpeded and rotates 180 degrees. In possible event, box stands in way of screen and prevents it from rotating full distance. In impossible event, screen passes right through box.

 showed that babies have limited memory tend to repeat same movements with A not B error

varied time between moment of switching an object between location A and location B and the moment when children were allowed to look for the hidden object.  

younger infants are capable of representing objects they cannot see but they quickly forget and become confused 

when a baby is allowed to uncover hidden object, first in location A.

then object is clearly moved to location B. babies in lower stages will search again in location A.

Piaget's experiment 

determined that delay leads to A not B error.

all 3 delays lead to babies staring longer at impossible event (object supposed to be in location B, it is in location A) even though they would have looked there anyway in same circumstances (A not B error) had they been allowed to manually search for it. 

possible explanations:

neuroscience- one ventral path, one dorsal path

early sensitivity to impossible events over all else