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| the sperm and egg; each possess 23 chromosomes |
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| the process by which gametes divide |
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| body cells; possess 46 chromosomes |
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| the process by which soma divide |
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| the first 22 pairs of chromosomes |
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| the 23rd pair of chromosomes |
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| specific genetic makeup of an individual |
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| the way the genotype manifests physically |
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| the form of the gene that is on a chromosome; there can be several different forms of a gene on a chromosome |
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| the gene that most usually gets expressed |
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| a gene that often is not expressed; may be expressed if both parents carry the gene |
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| pairs of genes that combine to manifest as a phenotype |
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fancy term for the nature/nurture issue; psychologists study this by family studies and twin studies
in twin studies, we look for IQ (usually very similar), |
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| identical twins; one sperm and one egg split; share 100% of genetic material |
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| fraternal twins; two eggs are released at once, fertilized by two separate sperm; share 50% of genetic material |
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| the rate of trait similarity in twins |
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| role of environment in gene expression |
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| while the gene may affect the environment, the environment may activate or "turn on" a gene; may be triggered by new people in the home, poverty, stress, etc. |
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| zygotic stage (germinal stage) |
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first stage of prenatal development; 0-14 days
begins with fertilization and ends with implantation on the uterine wall
marked by rapid cell division and safety from outside toxins |
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second stage of prenatal development; 3-8 weeks; embryo is most vulnerable to damage
marked by cell differentiation and migration, and the placement of all major organs |
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third stage of prenatal development; 9 weeks-birth
marked by increase in size growth, lung development (7th month, "zone of viability," when surfactant is produced to help lungs absorb oxygen), and brain development (size, differentiation, complexity- forming more synapses) |
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| disruption of development |
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| chromosomal abnormalities, teratogens, |
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anything that causes a deviation or malformation in the developing fetus; cause 1/3 of birth defects
often substances that are ingested by the mother (i.e., alcohol, drugs, cigarettes), but can also be excessive exposure to radiation, flu virus |
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result of ingestion of large amounts of alcohol by the mother during pregnancy
-physical malformations, often facial
-delay of motor milestones
-cognitive deficits (mild to severe mental retardation) |
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causes low birth weight
associated with smaller children, respiratory problems, more diagnoses of hyperactivity and academic problems (at age 9) |
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| cephalocaudal development |
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| the head area develops first and more quickly, followed by the other extremities; manifests in prenatal and postnatal development |
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| proximodistal development |
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| body develops from the inside out; manifests prenatally and postnatally |
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| movements present in all infants; lay the foundation for voluntary motor movement; tell us about the neurological status of the infant; many disappear during the first year of life |
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| reflex where the infant grasps an object pressed against the palm |
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| second-most-used neonatal assessment of health; includes a section for reflexes; 10 is a healthy baby, anything lower indicates health problems |
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| a mental representation of something; like a file folder in your head to help organize and process information |
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| when an infant tries to apply an old schema to new information, or tries to fit new information into an old schema |
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| when existing schemas adequately take care of familiar information or tasks |
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| when a schema is changed to fit new information, or a new schema is created |
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| when an existing schema no longer works for new information |
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| first of Piaget's stages of development; age 0-2; children interact with the world through their senses and movements; tend to fail object permanency tasks |
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| knowing that an object exists even though you can't see it |
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| second of Piaget's stages of development; age 2-6; children interact with the world based on how things appear; tend to fail conservation tasks |
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| knowing that the integrity of an object remains even if its appearance changes |
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| tendency to rely on one's own perspective and seem to be unable to take the perspective of another; can be tested with the "3 mountain task" |
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| when a preoperational child gives human attributes to inhuman objects; related to conservation because it is making things up to try and make sense of the world |
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when a child does not understand that a relationship in one direction means there is a relationship in the other direction
Ex: Do you have a brother? Yes. What's his name? Jim. Does Jim have a brother? No. |
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| the inability to pay attention to more than one dimension at a time |
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| concrete operational stage |
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| third of Piaget's stages of development; age 6 or 7-11 or 12; onset of logical thinking; typically able to complete conservation tasks; now decentrated; more likely to see moral and empathic behaviors |
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| knowing that there are major classes and sub-classes; tested by a class inclusion task (I have 5 red wooden beads, and 3 blue wooden beads; do I have more red wooden beads or wooden beads?) |
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| a test that asks children to order different length sticks from tallest to shortest; requires decentration, because it requires two comparisons (this stick is shorter than the first stick, but also taller than the next) |
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| fourth of Piaget's stages of development; age 11 or 12; ability to use thought in the abstract |
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| develops around 18 months; child develops sense of self and possesses social emotions (pride and guilt) |
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| at birth, infants can show facial emotions (happy, sad, angry, etc.) |
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a child's basic stable emotional response to novel and familiar stimuli
Thomas and Chess (1977) |
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1977; did extensive research on child temperament
used self-reports from parents
found that most children fit into three categories: easy, difficult, slow to warm up |
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| child adheres to regular sleeping, eating, and bowel movement cycles; adjusts well to change |
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| child has irregular sleeping, eating, and bowel movement cycles; does not adjust well to change; prone to volatile move swings |
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| slow to warm up temperament |
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| child is very cautious in the beginning, but gradually becomes comfortable and more adventurous |
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studied temperament; believed there is a biological basis, because there are differences at birth
put children in a setting with two new children, measured their physiological responses (heart rate, respiration, cortisol in saliva for stress, amygdala functioning for fight or flight instinct)
found two major groups: inhibited and uninhibited; seen as a continuum
children at the extreme ends of the spectrum are very unlikely to change as they age |
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"shy" children
cortisol levels are up, heart rate is up, amygdala is on fire; stress threshold is low |
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| "outgoing" children; stress threshold is high |
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the social relationship formed from the caretaker to the infant
women who are on drugs or clinically depressed may report never bonding with their infants |
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the relationship formed from the infant to the caretaker
infants are not attached to the caretaker at birth; develops within the first year |
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the study of how children develop relationships with others; starts with the relationship with the caretaker
Harlow, Bowlby, Ainsworth |
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1958; experiment about surrogate mothers with infant monkeys; monkeys required comfort from their mother figure regardless of whether or not it provides sustenance
studied cognition in monkeys, but discovered that when separated from their mothers at birth, they become neurotic |
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1969; army psychiatrist; after WWII, he and a team toured European orphanages; saw much pathology in orphaned children because they had no attachment relationships; formed attachment theory
1) indiscriminate attachment - no preference for caretaker (0-3 months)
2) discriminate attachment - prefer primary caretaker (3 months)
3) specific attachment - preference for mom; separation anxiety and fear of strangers peak (7-8 months)
4) attachment in adulthood - internal working model developed in childhood dictates romantic relationships as an adult |
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created "strange situation," a contrived environment where variables are manipulated and attachment can be observed
75-80% of children are securely attached (child is upset when mother leaves and happy when she returns) |
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| 75-80% of children; child is upset when mother leaves and happy when she returns |
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| anxious resistant attachment |
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| child is not close to mother initially but is demanding of her attention; inconsolably distressed when the mother leaves; beats up on the mother when she returns |
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| anxious avoidant attachment |
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| child ignores the mother, is not upset when she leaves, and ignores her when she returns |
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