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| the study of the expression of the inherited traits |
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| the study of the transmission of inherited traits |
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| first came up with the idea of "form-building elements" |
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| a physiological embryologist- thought nucleus contained the genes of the cell- chromosomal theory of inheritance- showed that nuclear chromosomes are responsible for the development of inherited characters |
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| physiological embryologist- thought that cytoplasm contained the genes of the cell |
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| chromosomal hypothesis of inheritance- sea urchin study |
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| Showed that chromosomes (sex chromosomes) were determining development in insects |
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| function while building the animal, mediation between genotype and phenotype, initiation rather than maintenance, science of process |
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| first account of chick development |
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| discovered notochord and egg cell |
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| cleavage division, pattern formation, morphogenesis, cell differentiation, cell growth |
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| cells become structurally and functionally different |
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| cell multiplication, increase in cell size |
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| cell-cell communication, cell shape changes, cell movement, cell proliferation, cell death |
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| several abnormalities occurring concurrently |
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| environmental agents that cause disruption |
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| interphase, cytokinesis, and mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase) |
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| fertilization,cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis, gametogenesis, metamorphosis |
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| cells that will eventually become the gametes |
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| in reference to the cells that will give rise to the gametes |
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| tissue that is early in development |
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| myxamoebae (single cell creature), aggregation stage (after starvation)[chemotaxis with cAMP], slug structure (form a spore and stalk system) |
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| 3 cell adhesion molecules for Dictyostelium |
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| development of specialized cell types |
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| when the cell's fate becomes restricted |
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| cell is going to determine fate autonomously on the basis of its environment |
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| blastomere removed form an embryo early in development, will produce same type of cells it would have done normally |
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| morphogenetic determinants |
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| substances secrete within the cell that determine the gene expression for that specific cell type |
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| remove a cell, and it will develop to its proper fate without having the environment to change it- autonomous specification |
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| tunicate experiment- cells from the animal and vegetal hemisphere are set to become certain things- autonomous specification |
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| nuclei divide within the egg cytoplasm, creating many nuclei within one large egg cell |
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| conditional specification |
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| the fate of a cell depends upon the conditions in which the cell finds itself |
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| conditional specification- able to compensate for missing cells if removed from the cell |
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| conditional specification- came up with germ plasm model- pioneered defect experiment, isolation experiment, and recombination experiment, and lead to the development of transplant experiment |
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| hypothesized the first cleavage division separated the future right half of the embryo from the left half of the embryo |
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| tested Weismann's experiment- hot needle, kill off one side, no tissue developed |
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isolation experiment in Sea Urchin- separate blastula into 4 cells, each make own plutei: first experimentally observable evidence of regulative development (conditional specification)
Recombination experiment- pressure plate experiment- change neighbor relations- got normal development- therefore conditional specification |
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| cell's fate cannot be reversed based on the cell's environment |
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| self-renewal, producing specific cell types, pluripotent |
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| differential cell affinity |
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| membranes of cells have different personalities |
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| reaggregation of cells from amphibian neuralae- cells sort based on affinities found during development |
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| differential adhesion hypothesis- model explained pattern of cell sorting based on thermodynamic principles |
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| hierarchy of cell sorting---surface tension decreasing |
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| Cadherin-Mediated Cell Adhesion |
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| Calcium dependent adhesion molecules- bind to actin, three subunits within the cell (alpha, beta, gamma) |
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| E-cadherin, p-cadherin, N-Cadherin, and R-Cadherin |
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| phenomenon of directing movement based on chemicals in the environment. The protists do this with cAMP |
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| types of cell adhesion molecules for protists |
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| Gp24 (aid in adhering to each other after starvation), Gp80 (found when streaming= larger fruiting bodies), Gp150 (hold together the slug) |
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| 2 objections to genetically based embryology |
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| provide evidence that genes control early stages of embryogenesis, explain how chromosomes produce different and changing types of cell cytoplasm |
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| Gluecksohn-Schoenheimer & Waddington |
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| Showed mutations in Brachyury and Drosophila produce defects in the embryo- negated first objection of genetically based embryology |
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| predicts totipotency of the differentiated cell |
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| Methods needed to test totipotency |
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| enucleation of embryo, isolation of donor nucleus, transferring technique- done by Robert Briggs and Thomas King |
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| cloned a frog- took arrested oocyte host, pulled spindle formation to vitelline envlope, removed donor blatula nucleus, injected into cell, got frog |
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| developed serial transplantation- took frog webbing from foot, transplanted into enucleated embryo,took nuclei from blastula that formed, implanted into other enucleated embryo= tadpoles |
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| cloned first adult vertebrate- Dolly- took donor cell from udder (G1), placed in host egg cell, got Dolly. |
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| Differential gene expression |
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| how cells become different- 3 postulates; every nucleus contains the complete genome, unused genes are not destroyed, only a small % of genome is expressed and the RNA produced is specific for that cell. |
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| cells that have many copies of DNA but never undergo mitosis- example of differential gene expression. See banding pattern around cell, same copies of gene, but produced different tissue specific mRNAs |
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| reverse transcriptase- polymerase chain reaction. used to convert mRNA into DNA and make copies of the DNA sequence of interest. |
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| detect differences in cell populations- have trays with spots that have cDNA oligonucleotides, take cells from two states and mix together, place on spots, colors resulting tells which is present in higher amount. |
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| spots are bigger, inject mRNA into embryo, harvest mRNAs from embryos, place on spots, see what shows up |
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| whole-mount in situ hybridization |
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| place holes in embryo, use antisense RNA that has digoxigenin (place in nucleus), develop antibodies to digoxigenin, and include an enzyme to label the hydrid, introduce a dye that will activate if the phosphatase pulls off a phosphate from the dye and colors the cell purple. |
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| nucleosome/chromatin structure |
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| DNA wraps around a central histone, 2 times |
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| on histones 3/4, causes unraveling and consequently, transcription |
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| stabilizes the histone structure, inhibiting transcription |
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| steps toward production of a gene |
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| transcription, processing, translation, post-translational modification |
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| transcription initiation complex |
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bind at TATA box- TF(IID, IIA, IIB, IIH)
TFIIH is a kinase, phosphorylates RNA polymerase I |
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| usually required for gene transcription, a DNA sequence, a cis-regulatory element, combinations turn on genes. |
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| a type of enhancer that binds to the enhancer to inhibit transcription |
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| a enhancer built into the construct so it is downstream from a reporter gene (GFP), inject into animal, if transcription occurs, see a visual assay |
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| how to insert DNA into cells |
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| transfection (certain conditions), electroporation (shocking the cell), transposable elements (incorporate DNA into element), retrovirus (make a construct, insert DNa, infects cell) |
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| used to examine the roles of genes, can knock out mRNA. antisense is the complementary sequence to a RNA |
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| carries modified genetic material, contains gene cDNA of interest, can make normal or antisense mRNA, results in protein synthesis |
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| use a 5 ring sugar, keeps from getting degraded, present generations |
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| differential mRNA processing |
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| RNA selection ( different sets are picked), Differential splicing ( nRNA spliced at different points) |
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| Factors of Differential mRNA longevity |
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| longer time present= more proteins, length of poly-A tail, selective stabilizaiton |
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| a small piece of RNA that is complementary to a portion of Lin -14. used to inhibit the synthesis of LIN-14. |
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| cells change their surrounding cells, done by releasing an induction factor |
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| diffusible protein released by the cell to change surrounding cells |
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| target cell that is affected by the induction factor released from the induction cell |
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| the ability of a cell to respond to a specific inductive signal |
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| to remove the inductive signal |
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| optic vesicle->optic cup-> retina; controlled by Pax6 and BMP4 +Fgf8--> wild-type ectoderm needed to get a lens |
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| instructive (signal from inducing cell necessary), permissive (responding tissue already specified) |
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| form from any germ layer- covering sheets or tubes of connected cells |
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| loosely packed, unconnected cells- demonstrates induction when placed with epithelial |
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| epidermis secrete Sonic Hedgehog, and TGFB2- dermis responds with condensation clumps- condensed tissue releases factors taht induce formation of cutaneous structures (wing feathers, scales, claws)----> this is instructive interaction |
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| genetic specificity of inductions- showed with newt and tadpoles- took frog flank ectoderm and transplanted it into the mouth region of newt- induction signal tells to make a mouth, but mouth is the frog- induction factors can act upon cells from other species, but specific reaciton |
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| cell-cell contact tells responding cell to do something |
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| soluble factor exocyosed from one cell, diffuses from cell to bind to receptors- works several cells away ex. Nodal, WNT |
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| hormone moved by blood stream |
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| four families of paracrine factors |
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| FGF family, Hedgehog family, Wingless or WNT family, TGF-B superfamily |
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| 3 components of a receptor from RTK |
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| extracellular ligand-binding domain, transmembrane domain, enzymatic activity |
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| paracrine factor, induces particular cell types- eyes, motor neurons, somite development |
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| paracrine factor, induces particular cell types- eyes, motor neurons, somite development |
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| patched protein binds to smoothened protein when no shh present, inhibits transcription. When on, patched does not inhibit smoothened, which inhibits PKA and Slimb, allowing CI to be phosphorylated, and enter the nucleus initiating transcription |
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| Ligand present, binds to frizzled, which activates Dishelved, inhibits the APC, GSK3B, and Axin, B-catenin enters nucleus binds to Lef/TCF, starts transcription of Wnt target genes |
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| BMP, Vg1, Nodal, Activins, TGF-B |
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| activated by TGF-B superfamily paracrine factors, bind to type II receptor, which then binds to type I receptor, type I phosphorylates the smad protein |
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| Brenner, Sulston, and Horvitz |
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| did apoptosis pathway in C. Elegans- two genes identified, CED-3 &4; CED-3 triggers apoptosis, CED-4 activates CED-3 |
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| Capase 3--> Capase 9--> inhibited by Apaf1--> inhibited by BCl2--> inhibited by Bik and Bax |
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| responsible for binding of RNA polyermase |
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| transcription initiation site |
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| ACATTTG- called cap sequence, where transcription starts |
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| translation initiation site |
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| ATG- downstream from transcription initiation site, where translation starts |
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| TAA- where ribosome dissociates at, and protin is released |
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| transcription termination |
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| where transcription stops, contains cap sequence, 5 and 3' UTR, exons and introns |
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| three components of transcription factor |
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| dna-binding domain, trans-activating domain, and protein-protein interaction domain |
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