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Develop Exam 2
Exam 2
112
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
03/03/2013

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Jean Piaget
Definition

- biologist 

-animal behavior 

-active and discontinous development 

Term
Piaget's theory
Definition

-child plays an active role in their own development at all stages 

-constructivism- the active child 

-child as a scientist 

Term
discontinuity
Definition

-stages: qualitative changes in ways of thinking with fast transitions 

-domain-generality- "broad applicability"

-invarient sequence: don't change the order 

Term
Piaget's 4 stages
Definition

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. contrete operational 

4. formal operational 

Term

sensorimotor 

 

Definition

-birth to age 2 

-only sensory and motor abilities, no representation 

Term
before 8 months
Definition

-increasingly interested in the world 

-lack of object permenance: "out of sight, out of mind"

Term
8-12 months
Definition

-object permanence arrives 

-representations are "fragile"

-A not B error 

Term
12-18 months
Definition

-disappearance of AB search error 

-active experimentation 

Term
18-24 months
Definition

-mental representations: internal images of objects and events that persist over time 

-deferred imitatation

-pretend play 

Term
preoperational stage
Definition

- 2-7 years 

-major accomplishment: increase in symbol activity 

-pretend play 

-language 

-representational drawing 

-maps 

-some limitations 

-lack of logical operations that can be applied to any situation

-egocentrism- ex: 3 mountains problem 

-centration/lack of conservation 

 

Term
concrete operational stage
Definition

- 7- 12 years 

-logical reasoning about concrete features of the world 

-operations/transformations 

-conversation appears 

-limitations:

-reasoning limited to observable and specific situations 

-lack of experimentation to solve problems 

(ex: the pendulum problem)

 

Term
formal operations
Definition

- 12+

-hypothetical reasoning and abstract thinking 

-new abilities: systematic approach to problem solving (ex: pendulum problem) and propositional thought

-not universal 

Term
assimilation
Definition

making the world fit your current conceptual structure 

(ex: horses are dogs)

Term

equilibrium

 

Definition
concepts are well-matched to world, no dissonance
Term
disequilibrium
Definition
mismatch, dissonance
Term
accomodation
Definition
changing your conceptual structure to fit the world
Term
Piaget's 4 weaknesses
Definition

- not so much consistency within a stage

-infants have more mental life than he realized

-understates contribution of social world

-vague about processes of change 

(assimilation and accomodation are difficult to quantify or predict)

Term
information processing model
Definition

-the child as computer 

-limited by: 

-hardware: memory/capacity/efficency of basic operations 

-software: startegies and knowledge 

-emphasis on mechanisms of development/change 

-development: improvement of both hardware and software 

-maturation --> hardware

-experience --> software 

Term
example of information processing
Definition
-break task down into component parts to find what is wrong and hencewhat whe mechanism must involve
Term
information processing: central developmental issues
Definition

-continuous change 

-gradual maturation (biological) and learning (from experience)

-emphasis on how change occurs (mechanism)

Term
3 mechanisms of memory development
Definition

1. improvement in basic processes and processing speed

2. improvement/acquisitions of strategies 

3. acqusisition of content knowledge 

Term
improvement in basic processes and processing speed
Definition

- basic processes:

associating events with each other 

encoding specific features of objects and events 

recognizing objects as familiar 

generalizing one instance to another 

-apply to all domains 

-processing speed:

biological maturation and experience

myelination

increased/more effiecient connectivity 

Term
improvement/acquisition of strategies
Definition

-recall arithmetic strategies

-rehersal (improvement over mid childhood)

-selective attention

ex: coy, soil, enjoys, voice

-new strategies can take time to work

-utilization deficiency 

Term
aqusition of content knowledge
Definition
-for spelling: experience with specific words, word roots and patterns
Term
core knowledge theory
Definition

-domain specificity/modularity

-nativism (opposite of empircism)

-core domains (modules)

objects, numbers, language, living things, faces, spatial navagation

-knowledge in these domains is innate and the distinction between them is innate 

-connection to evolution

child is a well equipted product of evolution

continuity with other animals- specialized learning mechanisms are uncontroversial 

Term
core knowledge theory and physics
Definition

- basic knowledge is innate or very early 

-3 month olds- suprised when objects move through one another

-2 month olds- surprised when objects jump

Term
sociocultural issues
Definition

-stress development taking place through interactions with other people

child as social beings, not scientists 

-stress importance of culture

artifacts, symbols, skills, values 

specific to culture 

 

Term
Vygotsky
Definition

-children are intent on participating in activities in their local setting

-children are products of a culture 

Term
the force of development: guided participation
Definition

1. intersubjectivity

2. social scaffolding

3. zone of proximal development 

Term
intersubjectivity
Definition

-mutual understanding people share during communication

-begins in infancy

-joint attention: intentionally focusing on a common referent 

Term
social scaffolding
Definition
- scaffold metaphor
Term
zone of proximal development
Definition

-range of performance between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal support

- support has to be challenging but not too challenging 

Term
sensation
Definition

receiving basic information from external world through the sensory receptors 

-different ccone of cells in retina respond to different frequencies of light 

Term
percepetion
Definition
process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
Term
cognition
Definition
further organizing and interpreting the information, including recognizing and naming usually for a goal
Term
when and how does perception develop?
Definition

-what do newborns do? how do they learn more?

-what knowledge is aquired (nature-nurture)

Term
links between perception, action, and cogntion
Definition

-visual acquity- the sharpness of vision and clarity with which details can be discerned 

-testing visual acquity

-gratings 

-sinusodial

-the higher the frequency of the lines you can see the better your discrimination

Term
OKN (optikinetic nystagums)
Definition

eye movement

following moving stripes

Term
ERP/EEG (evoked response potentials/electro-enaphalography)
Definition

newborn acquity: 20/600 

-rapidly moves: 20/120 by 2 months

nearly 20/20 by 8 months 

Term
acquity is partly determined by..
Definition

packaging of cones on fovea 

cones: visual receptors on retina 

-newborn's cones are less densly backed (fovea is larger)

-muscles of lens weak 

Term
color vision
Definition

3 types of cones 

-short/blue 

-medium/green

-long/red 

 

may take up to 4 months for color vision to be adult-like

green and red function @ 8 weeks

blue up to 3-4 months 

Term
color vision in infants
Definition

- 1st month: infants focus on area with most contrast

outside boundaries 

acuity and contrast are related

-2-3 months- able to explore inner features 

Term
vision at 4 months
Definition

simple patterns 

ex: square 

Term
12 months
Definition
sophisticated static patterns (motorcycle), stay habituated after complete set
Term
object segmentation/segregation
Definition
finding the distinct, coherent objects in a scene
Term
cues for adults
Definition

-physical separation

-motion (common motion and independent motion)

-top down knowledge 

Term
vision at 2 months
Definition

-physical separtation

-motion 

Term
common motion/"rod and block" studies
Definition

-Spelke: common motion experiement

-4 month olds percieve single rod easily

-Johnson and Aslin

-2 month olds can do it if rod is wider or box is narrower 

Term
depth perception
Definition

-visual cliff experiments (Gibson and Walk 1960)

-age they are afraid is linked to their crawling age 

Term
optical expansion
Definition
when things take up more space on retina, it looks like it is getting closer to you
Term
binocular disaparity and stereopsis
Definition

-the greater the binocular disparity, the closer the object

-stereopisis- depth cue 

Term
pictorial/monocular cues
Definition

-3-7 months 

-occulsion: covering on object with another (3-4 months)

-perspective: assume that lines are parallel, must move in the distance (6-7 months)

-texture: further away things are, less detailed 

Term
reflexes
Definition
innate, fixed pattern of action that occurs in response to specific stimulation
Term
rooting
Definition

-touch cheek, turn head to open mouth

-disappears at ~3 weeks 

Term
palmar grasp
Definition

-touch palm, grab 

-disappears 3-4 months 

Term
stepping
Definition
-disppears ~2 months, reappears ~12 months
Term
moro/startle
Definition

-loss of support, arms go out and in

-disappears ~6 months

Term
babinski
Definition

-when you touch the bottom of the foot, toes fan out

-later in life, they curl in

-changes at 12 months 

-brain damage --> goes back to infant reflex 

Term
lifts head
Definition
4 weeks
Term
arms for support
Definition
2-4 months
Term
reaching/grasping
Definition
3-4 months
Term
sits without support
Definition
5-7 months
Term
crawls
Definition

-5-11 months 

(average is 5)

-depends on muscle, motivation, weight 

Term
walks alone
Definition
11-14 months
Term
gross motor skills
Definition
actions that help infant get around in environment
Term
fine motor skills
Definition

ex: reaching, grasping

-smaller movements 

Term
cephalocaudla trend
Definition

-"head" to tail

-head before arms and trunk, then legs 

Term
proximodistal trend
Definition

-center out 

-control head and trunk before arms and legs 

Term
maturation: traditional view
Definition

-based on observation

-Gesell

Term
heavy babies tend to crawl and walk later in life
Definition

-Water study (E Thelen)

stepping reflex reappeared in water 

 

-Added weight study (E Thelen)

-ankle weights- stepping reflex went away 

Term
cultural influence on motor development
Definition

-urban china/rural paraguay vs West Africa and West Indes 

-stretching/suspension exercises --> walk earlier 

Term
dynamic systems theory
Definition
  • behavior is an integrated system
  • CNS development
  • synaptogensis/myelination
  • movement possibilites of body 
  • prexisiting skills
  • sitting, reaching, walking
  • motivation
  • goal/personality
  • environment supports 
  • cultural differences 
  • America: dresses, back to sleep
  • orphanage studies 

 

Term

genetically determined emergence of 

 

Definition

-prereaching

-ulnar grasp

-transfer- move things from 1 hand to another 

-pincer grasp- between thumb and forefinger 

Term
self-location and egocentrism
Definition

piaget's egocentric representation: for infants object locations are coded relative to own position when location is first learned

-connection to self-locomotion

-crawling versus being carried to toy 

kids who crawled remembered where toy was 

Term
self locomotion and depth perception
Definition

-visual cliff studies

-crawlers show more fear than noncrawlers 

-noncrawlers with walker manipulation learned fear quickly 

Term
self locomotion and learning
Definition

-representations appear to be built through action

-is learning specific to each posture or motor  skill

-noitice microgenetic approach

-once crawl they don't care about depth 

Term
motor development and social development
Definition

-stranger anxiety/separation anxiety and crawling

-new, adversial relationship with adults 

-new opportunities for positive interactions 

Term
conditioning
Definition

classiscal- associating between an intially neutral stimulus and one that elicits a reflexive response 

babies do this early 

Term
operant conditioning
Definition

-learning an associating between one's own behavior and the consequences that result

-infant acts on environment

-outcome changes the probability that behavior will occur again

-reinforcer: increases occurrance

-punishment: decreases ocurrance 

ex: Cat in the Hat Study and sucking 

Term
perceptual learning
Definition

-noticing regularities, patterns 

-sounds and sights that go together

-affordances- learning what you can do with various objects 

-unconscious/implicit

Term
statisical learning
Definition

-noticing more nuanced contingencies: what things occur often, even if not all the time 

-includes attention to probailistic details: what percentage of questions are "b"

-unconscious/implicit 

Term
habituation and dishabituation
Definition

faciliates learning 

-diminishes attention to what is old 

-allows infant to pay attention to what is new 

Term
observational learning
Definition

-imitation

from 2 days? -Meltzoff

-by 6-9 months, imitate facial expressions, verbalizations, body actions, and actiongs involving objects 

Term
Baillergeon
Definition

-argued Piaget's test was too hard 

-violation of expectation/looking time 

-we look longer at the unexpected 

-object permanence with 4 month olds 

-much earlier than Piaget said 

Term
core domains
Definition

subjects in which we have innate concepts 

ex: objects, living things, number, language, minds 

Term
naive physics
Definition

Leslie: 1984

- babies are surprised when ther is no cause for movement at a distance @ 6 months 

Term
Spelke et al 1990
Definition
-4 month olds know objects move in continuous path, can't pass through other objects
Term
is all knowledge innate?
Definition
no... some time or experience is required for full knowledge of gravity and support
Term
number
Definition

-many infants discriminate objects and events by small numerosity 

-habituate to arrangements of same number 

-ex: 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 NOT 4-5

-"subitization"

 

Term
addition: 5 month olds
Definition

- 1+1

- 1-1

-only up to 3+1

 

Term
counting
Definition

-principles of counting 

-one to one correspondence 

-stable order

-cardinality- number of objects in my set 

-order irrelevance

-abstraction

-most children get this by age 5 

Term
language of newborns
Definition

vegetative sounds 

ex: burping, spitting 

Term
language of 6-8 weeks
Definition
cooing (oo, aa)
Term
language of 6-7 months
Definition

babbling (ba, ba)

-ma, ba, da, ga (voiced sounds)

-always consonant --> vowel

Term
first words
Definition

- comprehension as early as 6 months (takes off around 8-10 months)

-production begins 10-15 months, average first word @ 13 months 

-phonetically consistent form 

Term
word combinations
Definition

-18-24 months 

- telegraphic speech: missing function words (ex: prepositions, "the", "a"), missing grammatical morphemes 

-by 3 years, most children producing 4+ word sentences 

-introducing some function words 

-multiclause sentences ("I want to go outside")

-questions ("can he go outside"

-most grammar mastered by age 4 

-over generaliziations- ex: "I ranned"

Term
becoming a conversational partner- pragmatics
Definition

-Piaget's collective monologue

-5th grade more than 90% of utterances are relevant to conversation 

Term
generativity of syntax
Definition

-Skinner 1957

-language learning as operant conditioning 

-imitation

-reinforcement 

-Chomsky's 1959 Review of Skinner started a revolution

-imitation is not suffiecient 

-input to children is noisy-adults make mistakes

-children produce novel sentences

-infinite number of sentences 

Term
novel sentences
Definition

-children and adults produce sentences they have never heard

ex: I holded the baby rabbits

He giggled me 

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously 

-means imitation cannot be sufficient 

Term

generativity

 

Definition

-infinite number of sentences 

-infinite number of sentences is generated by a finite set of grammatical rules 

-if you interrupt a sentence at any given point, there is an average of 10 words that could follow 

Term
universal grammar
Definition
Chomsky's claim: picking the right one requires innate knowledge
Term
Nativism position
Definition

-Bolstered by:

-Crucial period @ around 7 years 

-species specificity

-specific language impairment

-dedicated brain areas 

Term
Chomsky's LAD
Definition
-information from environment --> language acquisition device --> language acquisition
Term
statisical leanring
Definition

-problem of identifying words in continous speech

-Saffran, Aslin and Newport (1996)

-8 month olds

-familiarized with 2 minutes of continuous speech

-4 different 3-syllable nonsense "words"

-repeated 45 times each, in random order, for 2 minutes

-head turn perference procedure, with 3 stypes of stimuli

--Type 1: "words from strea"

--Type 2: "nonwords" made from the stream with transitional properties of zero

-result: infants listened longer to nonwords 

--Type 3: "non words" made by joining the final syllable of a word to the first two syllables of another 

-result: listened longer to non words 

Term
Theory of Mind in infancy
Definition

-newborns prefer faces right side up

-drawn to face

-innate knowledge of face 

-preference for general facial configuration

-"top heavy"

-important for survival (ex: ducklings)

-consistent brain area

-newborns imitate facial expressions 

Term
Origins of TOM
Definition

-self awareness @ 1-2 years 

-awareness of one's own mind could be a prerequisite for understanding other's minds 

-red dot test (15 --> 24 months)

-photographs 

-using words "I" and "me" 

Term
"belief-desire" psychology
Definition

-knowing others have: emotions, desires, perceptions, beliefts, and intentional actions 

-especially difficult when they are different from one's own 

Term
emotional understanding
Definition

-empathy (primitive): emotional contagion from few weeks 

-social referencing (8-10 months): using someone else's emotional reaction to gauge a situation 

Term
desires
Definition

-goldfish/broccoli experiment

-18 month olds give broccoli

-14 month olds give goldfish 

Term
perceptions
Definition

-joint attention (~9 months)

-2 year olds still poor when perceptions differ

ex: hide and seek, hiding apple behind a screen-pass by 3 

-Piaget's 3 Mountains task 

Term

understanding other's beliefs 

 

Definition

-hard if different 

-false belief task 

-candy/penicls task

-pass by 4 

 

Term

Kovascs, Teglas, and Endress (2010)

 

Definition

-P= baby, A=agent

-P-A-(TB)= baby thinks the ball is not behind the occluder, A thinks the ball is not behind occluder (true belief)

-familiarization will balll behind the occulder, all test trials have NO BALL behind the occulder 

-knowledge of other's bbeliefs are computed as early as 7 months 

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