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DELTA MODULE 1
List of words for DELTA Module 1 set 2
176
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12/18/2016

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Term
Learning Styles
Definition
Definition: the mode in which learners best acquire information, knowledge, language, etc

Example: some students learn best through seeing things (visual learners)

Further Point: We can think of styles in terms of VAKOG (Visual, Auditory, Kinaesthetic, Olfactory and Gustatory). Students normally have a blend of these styles

Example: some people are good with numbers and patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence

Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified, though many now include an 8th (naturalist).
Term
Learner Profile
Definition
Definition: an overview of a learner's strengths and weaknesses in terms of what learner styles and intelligences they have

Example: Student A is a good visual and auditory learner, but doesn't get much out of kinaesthetic activities

Further Point: learner profiles can be used to base the needs of your students on when designing courses and activities
Term
Multiple Intelligences
Definition
Definition: definitions of learner styles/types divided into different 'intelligences' conforming to a different sphere of activity

Example: some people are good with numbers and patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence

Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified, though many now include an 8th (naturalist).
Term
Tolerance of Ambiguity
Definition
Definition: a learner is happy to wait for a language rule and cope with only part of the story


Example: a student accepts the reason, "that's just the way it is," is tolerant of ambiguity


Further Point: students can be intolerant of ambiguity as well and feel they need to know rules they can apply in any situation
Term
Syllabus-bound learner
Definition
Definition: describes a learner that needs the 'packaging' and presentation of data which the teacher, syllabus or course provides

Example: a student who doesn't feel s/he can learn outside of formal education is syllabus-bound


Further Point: the opposite kind of learner is described as a syllabus-free learner
Term
Syllabus-free learner
Definition
Definition: a learner who can learn from general elements in a learning context and outside of a classroom

Example: a learner who likes individual exercises and feels they work best on their own could be described as syllabus-free

Further Point: it is considered syllabus-free learners learn best when left to their own devices and can be restricted by course requirements
Term
Holistic learner
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who learns language through global exposure to language


Example: a student who doesn't feel the need to sequentially work through things and doesn't feel the need to make constant connections between things

Further Point: these types of learner benefit from doing a wide range of activities in a wide range of topics - breadth of experience is important
Term
Serialist learner
Definition
Definition: describes a learner that needs to analyse elements sequentially


Example: a student who wants to do tenses in a strict order would be a serialist


Further Point: serial learners can be thought of in opposition to holistic learners who learn through global exposure
Term
Field-dependent learner
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who only sees systems in terms of the general structure


Example: a learner who would not notice grammatical or lexical patterns in dialogue


Further Point: we can also talk about field-independent learners, who see things in terms of larger structures
Term
Field-independent learner
Definition
Definition: describes a learner who notices systems in larger structures


Example: a learner who notices verb patterns within dialogue


Further Point: we can also talk about field-dependent learners, who only see things in terms of general structures
Term
Intrinsic motivation
Definition
Definition: a desire to learn based on some kind of internal requirement or satisfaction


Example: a learner who comes to English classes because s/he loves learning languages


Further Point: can be balanced against 'extrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from outside
Term
Extrinsic motivation
Definition
Definition: requirements for learning which come from 'outside'


Example: a need to learn to get a job, pass an exam or because parents have made you


Further Point: can be balanced against 'intrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from inside
Term
Integrative motivation
Definition
Definition: the need to learn is based on the student's requirement to 'fit in' inside an L2 environment


Example: needing to know a language because you've moved to another country


Further Point: this kind of motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic
Term
Instrumental motivation
Definition
Definition: desire to learn caused by the need to achieve something


Example: needing to pass an exam or to get a career promotion


Further Point: this kind of motivation could be either intrinsic or extrinsic
Term
Performance orientation
Definition
Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to be better than the people around them have performance orientation

Example: a student who systematically goes around after a test to see if they have the highest marks is performance-oriented

Further Point: can be balanced against mastery orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of others
Term
Mastery orientation
Definition
Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of how others are performing have mastery orientation

Example: a student who sets him/herself goals to achieve and doesn't care if people do better in an exam is mastery-oriented

Further Point: can be balanced against performance orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to be better than those around them
Term
Progress test
Definition
Definition: a test to find out if the aims of a course/part of a course have been achieved, and the content absorbed

Example: A grammar test at the end of the month, testing what has been covered in class


Further Point: also called an achievement test or can be classed as formative testing (during a course)
Term
Proficiency test
Definition
Definition: a test to discover a learner's general abilities in skills and systems, not related to a particular course or text or programme of study

Example: Cambridge Main Suite exams like PET, FCE or CAE


Further Point: Proficiency tests can be 'norm-referenced' (graded in comparison to other test takers), or 'criterion-referenced' (graded to explicit criteria)
Term
Informal test
Definition
Definition: the everyday testing we do in class - not under test conditions i.e. not timed or graded etc


Example: eliciting, test-teach-test, monitoring etcetera


Further Point: this is the most common type of testing carried out on a language course
Term
Placement test
Definition
Definition: a test done to place a student in the correct level/class at the start of a course


Example: a multiple-choice grammar test followed by a spoken interview to ascertain ability


Further Point: placement tests can have a 'forward wash' effect, rather than backwash, as they are before the course.
Term
Diagnostic test
Definition
Definition: a test undertaken to test strengths and weaknesses in skills and systems


Example: a list of incorrect sentences for student to put into correct grammar, thereby testing grammatical areas they are good and bad at

Further Point: the results of these tests are often used as needs analyses, thus dictating future course content
Term
Aptitude test
Definition
Definition: a test of a student's natural ability to learn a language (in this case)


Example: in pronunciation, a test to check the ability to imitate/distinguish sounds in an unknown language


Further Point: clearly it is much simpler to test aptitude in systems like grammar, pronunciation or lexis, rather than skills
Term
Reliability
Definition
Definition: the consistency of the results gained from the test


Example: 2 students of identical level should get the same result, or the same student sitting the test on different occasions

Further Point: we can also talk about 'marker reliability' in that the marker should also mark the same across different tests
Term
Practicality
Definition
Definition: how easy the exam/test is to administer and mark


Example: a test that has a cover grid for the marker to quickly see what is right and wrong has high practicality.

Further Point: increasing a test's practicality often has an inverse effect on its reliability or validity
Term
Face validity
Definition
Definition: if a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test (impression)


Example: a learner may consider a pronunciation test which requires no speaking to not have face validity


Further Point: we can talk about a test having high face validity or low face validity
Term
Content validity
Definition
Definition: to what degree a test tests what it is supposed to (thoroughness)


Example: a test of present simple with more examples, including +, -, ?, short answer, has higher content validity than one with few + examples only

Further Point: content validity also refers to how thoroughly a test reflects the course of study before it e.g. a grammar test following an integrated systems-skills course has low content validity
Term
Construct validity
Definition
Definition: how much a test tests what it is supposed to and nothing else (precision)


Example: a gap-fill where the gaps have other possible answers, apart from the desired answers, is less construct valid than one where there is only one answer per gap

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high construct validity or low construct validity
Term
Predictive validity
Definition
Definition: how much a test accurately predicts how the student will use the language in real life


Example: writing a dialogue of buying something in a shop tests what language a student would use in that real-life situation

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high predictive validity or low predictive validity
Term
Impact
Definition
Definition: the impact of the test on society, educational systems and individuals.


Example: the experience of preparing for a test will affect the individual and how they view language and language courses

Further Point: Two further aspects of the testing system can impact on individuals - feedback on their performance and decisions made based on results
Term
Sample
Definition
Definition: an example of a student's work to see what their rough ability is. Not taken under test conditions

Example: at the start of the course, getting students to write a letter to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses

Further Point: you can take samples of productive skills (writing, speaking) but not receptive skills
Term
Discrete-item test
Definition
Definition: a test of one particular area of grammar, lexis or discourse


Example: a test on phrasal verbs or tenses



Further Point: typical as part of a product oriented syllabus / common in course books with a multi-layered syllabus with a central core syllabus of discrete items
Term
Integrative test
Definition
Definition: a test of various aspects of systems or skills at the same time


Example: a cloze test tests lexis and grammar and discourse at the same time


Further Point: used as a measure of general linguistic ability rather than knowledge of a single item
Term
Objective test
Definition
Definition: a test that where there can only be right or wrong answers i.e. no subjective judgement on part of the marker

Example: a multiple-choice test, where only one of the option is correct


Further Point: the fact that answers can only be right or wrong means that the test will have higher reliability
Term
Subjective test
Definition
Definition: a test that allows a variety of answers to be given and relies on a marker to 'judge' subjectively the correctness of the answer

Example: writing a letter for a marker to grade

Further Point: the fact that two markers may vary widely in their judgement means that these tests will have lower reliability
Term
Direct test
Definition
Definition: a test of the language point or skill by focusing just on that language point/skill


Example: testing use of linkers with a gap fill



Further Point: High face validity for the student
Term
Indirect test
Definition
Definition: a test of something within the context of something else


Example: testing a student's use of linkers by getting them to write a discursive essay.


Further Point: Can be oral or written, often in the form of an informal test, e.g. students talk about their holiday experiences as a way to test their use of the present perfect / past simple tenses in the lead in stage of a lesson
Term
Norm-referenced test
Definition
Definition: a test graded in comparison to the whole group of exam takers


Example: A test in which there had to be a certain number of passes, grade Bs, grade As, etc


Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test
Term
Criterion-referenced test
Definition
Definition: a test graded according to explicit criteria



Example: a test marked using banded descriptors or can-do statements, such as FCE speaking


Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test
Term
Key-word transformation
Definition
Definition: a test type where two sentences are given - one complete and one incomplete. Students must use a given key word to complete the second sentence so that the meaning of both sentences is the same

Example: FCE Use of English Part 4


Further Point: key word transformations are used to gauge a student's grammar and lexis
Term
Word formation
Definition
Definition: a test type where students are given a word that they have to change the form of to complete a sentence or longer text


Example: FCE Use of English Part 3


Further Point: word formation tests the students lexical knowledge
Term
Short answer
Definition
Definition: a test type where students have to provide a short answer to a given question


Example: In what year was JFK assassinated? ____________________________________


Further Point: questions of this type have to be very focussed to ensure they are reliable and objective
Term
Multiple matching
Definition
Definition: a test type where students have to match two or more sets of linked words, pictures or sentences

Example: FCE Reading Part 3



Further Point: this test type often relies on the student's knowledge of lexical fields and synonyms
Term
Formative evaluation
Definition
Definition: evaluation during a course / study programme


Example: a weekly test of the grammar and lexis learnt in that week


Further Point: can be compared to summative evaluation, which is done after a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself.
Term
Summative evaluation
Definition
Definition: evaluation after a course / study programme


Example: an end of course test



Further Point: can be compared to formative evaluation, which is done during a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself.
Term
Backwash
Definition
Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching leading up to it


Example: a global language exam decides to include a speaking test for the time. This causes teachers to begin including speaking practice in their classes

Further Point: the effect of backwash can be positive or negative
Term
spin off
Definition
Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching that follows the test/exam


Example: a teacher notices that students are doing consistently poorly in the listening part of a language test, causing the teacher to focus more on listening

Further Point: forward wash can be positive or negative
Term
Multiple-choice test
Definition
Definition: a test where a number of answers are given. Students have to choose the correct answer


Example: FCE Reading Part 1, where students have a choice of ABCD answers


Further Point: this type of test has high reliability as it is objective (does not involve the marker's subjective opinion)
Term
Cloze test
Definition
Definition: a test where a number of words have been removed from a text. Students have to complete the text

Example: FCE Use of English Part 2, where students have fill the gaps left in the text


Further Point: traditionally, the missing words were every so many words (e.g. every 9th word was missing) - there are also open and multiple choice cloze tests
Term
Behaviourism
Definition
Definition: a belief that language is learned behaviour and we learn by imitation of good models


Example: the Audio-lingual Method is the classroom approach of behaviourist ideology


Further Point: this approach works on a stimulus-response-reward/punishment model
Term
Innatism
Definition
Definition: a belief that we are born 'hard-wired' for language learning i.e. with an innate capacity

Example: Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory holds that all people from all cultures have the same innate 'rules' inside them

Further Point: many believe that this knowledge has to be triggered within a 'critical period' and is therefore sometimes not relevant to learning L2
Term
Deductive Approaches
Definition
Definition: approaches which are based on the students being given rules to apply logically


Example: the Grammar-Translation Approach is an example of a deductive approach


Further Point: deductive approaches can save time and some students may regard them as more adult
Term
Inductive Approaches
Definition
Definition: approaches which are based on the students initially being given examples from which they work out the rules for themselves

Example: the Audio-lingual Method is an example of an inductive approach - students work out form patterns from oral repetition

Further Point: the idea is that working things out for oneself is more memorable/has more cognitive depth
Term
Grammar-Translation Approach
Definition
Definition: A deductive approach based on the translation of literary texts from and into L2 with a focus on lexis lists and grammar rules

Example: Spanish students are given a section of Don Quixote in Spanish and piece by piece translate it into English

Further Point: Seen as a way of 'sharpening the mind' rather than language learning. The only speaking was reading translated texts aloud.
Term
Direct Method
Definition
Definition: A method from the 1880s based on speaking and listening instead of reading/writing, with lots of teacher talk and quick-fire 'display' questions.

Example: The teacher asking a string of questions about what the names of things are and what we use them for

Further Point: a lot of the language content is not very 'natural'. Berlitz is the most famous proponent of this approach
Term
Audio-Lingual Approach
Definition
Definition: an inductive approach based on drilling and pattern practice, moving towards substitution of elements

Example: Teacher: "That cat is cute." Students: "That cat is cute." Teacher: "Dog." Students: "That dog is cute." etc

Further Point: most interaction is teacher-student, students should 'overlearn' so that usage becomes habitual.
Term
Natural Approach
Definition
Definition: an inductive approach formed by Krashen that students should have as much comprehensible input (i+1) as possible

Example: classes where students listen to a large amount of language and read a lot, roughly at their level, would be using the natural approach

Further Point: there is no focus on form in the natural approach.
Term
Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Definition
Definition: an approach based on the belief that students learn by using, with a focus on being fluent first and accurate later

Example: students try a communicative task, the teacher provides help and upgrades language, the students have a better go at the task

Further Point: comes out of the belief that 'teaching is not the same as learning' - led to a move away from the PPP model
Term
The Lexical Approach
Definition
Definition: (Michael Lewis) marked by the belief that lexis is the most important element - language is
' grammaticised lexis' not 'lexicalised grammar'

Example: syllabi that focus on lexical chunks and collocation with little or no grammar input are lexical in their approach

Further Point: at low levels there is a strong emphasis on reading and listening
Term
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Definition
Definition: (James Asher) an approach based on students responding at first physically and then verbally to teacher commands

Example: Teacher: "If you like chocolate, stand up." (all students stand up) "If you also like crisps, sit down." (some students sit down) etc

Further Point: there is lots of listening at lower levels leading to more reading at higher levels
Term
Community Language Learning
Definition
Definition: (Charles Curran) an approach designed to form a group identity and lower the affective filter by building a conversation for later analysis/practice.

Example: Ss sitting in a closed circle whisper to T (outside the circle) what they wish to say to another S in L1. T translates, drills and S records utterance.

Further Point: a student-led process syllabus
Term
The Silent Way
Definition
Definition: the teacher elicits and speaks as a last resort, uses gestures, charts and Cuisenaire rods to work on structures.

Example: Teacher taps Fidel chart of phonemes in 3 places repetitively. Students provide word: r-e-d. Red.


Further Point: interesting that the silent way works on a structural syllabus, but is inductive in approach
Term
(De)Suggestopedia
Definition
Definition: (Giori Lozanov) an approach based on lowering the students' affective filter as much as possible to encourage acquisition

Example: using baroque music, sitting in comfy chairs, creating new identities all form part of this approach


Further Point: there is a 'receptive' 'activation' phase in class
Term
Learner (Strategy) Training
Definition
Definition: an approach based on the belief that students need training in 'learning' to make them more effective learners

Example: by teaching a student to underline the key words in rubric, they will become more effective at ensuring the question is answered correctly

Further Point: Learner training also emphasises the importance of learner autonomy and self-assessment as a means of improvement
Term
Noticing
Definition
Definition: the idea that exercises which lead students to pay attention to form will lead to noticing these forms in future input, leading to acquisition

Example: teacher highlights 'let's face it' in a text in class and later a student consciously notices the phrase in their reading/listening and they acquire it

Further Point: Studies in L2 acquisition suggest that we need to consciously notice language for input to become intake
Term
PPP
Definition
Definition: Presentation - Practice - Production model for the teaching of discrete items of grammar and lexis

Example: Introducing key examples of target language in context, followed by restricted use to build accuracy/confidence, then target language is used in a freer context to practise accuracy/fluency

Further Point: An accuracy to fluency model which is much criticised nowadays
Term
Test-Teach-Test
Definition
Definition: a method where you find out student ability initially, work on problem areas as necessary and then check student improvement

Example: Teacher tests knowledge of articles with a gap fill, then teaches rules, then students correct the gap fill by applying the rules

Further Point: this can be for discrete items or for skills e.g. to test for the presence/absence of a particular sub-skill
Term
Guided Discovery
Definition
Definition: students work things out by themselves so that they are more cognitively engaged and the rules are more memorable

Example: giving students examples and guiding them to work out the rules is an example of inductive guided discovery


Further Point: can be deductive (give students rules to match to examples) as well as inductive
Term
Dictogloss
Definition
Definition: a type of reconstruction activity based on natural-speed dictation of a text


Example: the teacher dictates a short text at natural speed and students just listen; on a second dictation they note key words and phrases, then work together to reconstruct the text

Further Point: Usually holistic in language focus, but can be discrete item
Term
Context
Definition
Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about

Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be 'running a search on the web'

Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context
Term
Context
Definition
Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about

Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be 'running a search on the web'

Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context
Term
Co-text
Definition
Definition: the words immediately around a particular item in the text which help to deduce its meaning

Example: on the way back to the market (the underlined words are the co-text of 'back')


Further Point: the co-text can be the same topic as the context (they are about the same things) or can be a digression away from the context
Term
Top-Down Processing
Definition
Definition: applying world or context knowledge in our decoding of the meaning of a text


Example: looking at a title of an article and then thinking about what is known about that 'topic' before starting to read

Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Bottom-up processing', which starts at individual parts of the text (words, discourse markers, etc)
Term
Bottom-up Processing
Definition
Definition: processing a text starting with the smaller elements of a text (words, sounds, etc) then building upwards to decode the text as a whole

Example: listening or reading for the times of a particular train


Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Top-down' processing, which starts from 'global knowledge' to process meaning
Term
Interactive Processing
Definition
Definition: using a mixture of 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' processing in order to decode meaning

Example: looking for your name on a list of exam results (top-down= knowing it's alphabetical, so starting roughly in the right place; bottom up= recognising your name)

Further Point: interactive processing is, in reality, what we normally do when trying to decode a text, although the 'perfect mixture' of the two is still up for debate
Term
Schemata
Definition
Definition: a mental representation of a situation or the context of a text

Example: If you see an article with the title 'riding a bike', you picture the act of riding a bike, which brings to mind words and possible situations involved with it e.g. falling off, mending a puncture, etc

Further Point once our schemata are activated, we can predict information and language within familiar circumstances, topics, etc, which aids top-down processing
Term
Skimming
Definition
Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves moving you eyes over the text quickly to get a general idea of the topic, content and main ideas

Example: looking quickly over an essay you find that a) it is about computers, b) the 1st paragraph is on advantages, c) the 2nd paragraph is on disadvantages, and d) that the author thinks computers are good

Further Point: involves interactive processing - through recognition of words combined with prediction
Term
Scanning
Definition
Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves looking through a text very quickly to find specific information

Example: you want to find the birth and death year of a famous person, so you look very quickly through a text focusing on years until you find it

Further Point: often involves bottom-up processing in that you are trying to find specific word items. You know what you are looking for.
Term
Product Approach
Definition
Definition: the use of idealised model texts in order to give students an example of what is expected in their writing, in terms of layout and structure

Example: giving students a model application letter for analysis, then trying to imitate it within the confines of a new 'question'

Further Point: this was the first systematic approach to teaching writing
Term
Process Approach
Definition
Definition: an approach to writing where what the writer does is of prime importance


Example: task analysis, brainstorming, planning, drafting, editing and re-writing would be a typical process for writing

Further Point: the process approach still required some analysis of genre and models before the student could decide what needed to be written
Term
Genre Approach
Definition
Definition: an approach to writing that prioritises the relationship between the reader and the writer - the purpose of the text, the social context and intended audience

Example: analysing authentic examples to consider how and why they have been written as well as language and layout

Further Point: recently there has been a move to combine approaches - the 'genre-process approach', which combines analysis of authentic examples of the genre with good procedures in the writing process
Term
Paraphrase
Definition
Definition: a skill that allows the speaker (or writer) to report something said in a different way, or to circumlocute difficulties


Example: A: "He totally blew his top."
B: "You mean he got angry? Why?"


Further Point: paraphrase is often used in academic writing to outline what other authors have said without resorting to a quote
Term
Anaphoric Reference
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers back to a previously mentioned item in a text.


Example: "Susan lives just round the corner. She's my best friend." 'She' refers back to 'Susan'


Further Point: can be seen in contrast to cataphoric reference (refers forward) and exophoric reference (refers to something 'outside' the text, which is common knowledge)
Term
Cataphoric Reference
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers forward to another thing mentioned later in the text


Example: "Given that it is bad for you, smoking still remains very popular." 'It' refers forward to 'smoking'


Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back) and exophoric reference (refers outside the text)
Term
Exophoric Reference
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something 'outside' of the text, which is commonly known by all

Example: "Share prices slumped in the City today." 'The city' refers to the economic centre of a country, which is assumed knowledge.

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back within the text) and anaphoric reference (refers forward within the text)
Term
Deixis
Definition
Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something that you would only understand if you were present in the original conversation

Example: "Can you pass me that, please?" You would only understand what 'that' was if you were present in the conversation

Further Point: : often accompanied by hand gestures or other body language (paralinguistic features)
Term
Substitution
Definition
Definition: use of (usually) determiners and adverbs of place and time to substitute a previous element to avoid repetition. A type of grammatical cohesion.

Example: "Shall we meet at the King's Head pub?" "Okay, see you there." 'There' is substituted for 'the King's Head pub'

Further Point: very similar in function to anaphoric reference, but that is usually demonstratives or pronouns and the definite article
Term
Ellipsis
Definition
Definition: the missing out of words in informal speech or writing. A type of grammatical cohesion.


Example: "Where you going?" Here, the auxiliary 'are' has been elided or 'Having a great time' in a postcard


Further Point we commonly elide subject pronouns and auxiliaries
Term
Parallelism
Definition
Definition: repetition of all or part of a grammatical structure or pattern


Example: "We will fight them on the beaches. We will fight them on the landing grounds. We will fight them in the fields and in the trees." Here, 'we will' has been paralleled again and again.

Further Point: normally used for dramatic effect
Term
Repetition
Definition
Definition: the repeating of key lexis. A type of lexical cohesion as it provides language links throughout a text

Example: "This year we'll be stronger because this year we need to be. This year we deserve it." 'This year' has been repeated again and again.


Further Point: normally used for clarity or dramatic effect
Term
Hedging
Definition
It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
Language used in hedging:
1. Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical verb e.g. believe, assume, suggest
3. Certain modal verbs: e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
4. Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually
Term
accuracy
Definition
The ability to produce grammatically-correct language (contrast with fluency).
Term
approach
Definition
Teaching which is based on adherence to a particular theory about language or language learning.
Term
appropriacy/appropriateness
Definition
The most suitable choice of language for the situation, the relationship between speakers, the topic, etc.
Term
authentic materials
Definition
Spoken or written texts from real-life sources, originally intended for native speakers.
Term
backchaining
Definition
Teaching a pronunciation pattern by getting learners to repeat successively longer portions of it, starting with the last part and extending backwards to the beginning.
Term
brainstorm
Definition
A group activity in which learners come up with ideas themselves on a topic without teacher intervention.
Term
buzz groups
Definition
An activity in which groups of students have a brief discussion to generate ideas, answer specific questions, etc. (similar to brainstorm).
Term
coherence
Definition
The linking of ideas or concepts in a text to express the underlying message which may or may not be marked by explicit cohesive devices.
Term
cohesion
Definition
The linking of sentences and paragraphs in a text through the use of formal features, such as pronouns, and sequence expressions, such as, therefore, next, etc.
Term
elicitation
Definition
A technique in which the teacher draws information from learners through question and answer,
Term
error
Definition
Imperfect production caused by genuine lack of knowledge about the language.
Term
evaluation
Definition
The judgement of something, such as a learner's performance, a class, a task, a book.
Term
facilitator
Definition
A person (usually the teacher) who helps learners find their own answers rather than providing them with the 'right' answers
Term
form
Definition
The actual words (written) or sounds (spoken) used to express something in language as opposed to meaning or use. Often synonymous with structure.
Term
free practice
Definition
The stage of a lesson in which the teacher does not intervene or attempt to control learner production.
Term
function
Definition
The communicative purpose of a structure on a particular occasion- what the speaker is trying to do through language (e.g. inviting, suggesting).
Term
genre
Definition
The type of text e.g. a magazine, a letter, a note.
Term
grading
Definition
Adjusting language or tasks to suit the ability level of students.
Term
group dynamics
Definition
The way a group of people interacts with one another.
Term
inference
Definition
A guess about something which is not explicitly stated in a text - 'reading between the lines'.
Term
input
Definition
Language which learners experience in a lesson from which they can learn. It can also refer to information, or a mini-lecture, given by a trainer to trainees.
Term
integrated skills
Definition
All or some of the language skills together (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
Term
intensive reading
Definition
Careful reading to obtain detailed understanding of a text.
Term
interaction
Definition
Patterns of communication (verbal and non-verbal) between people.
Term
jigsaw reading
Definition
An activity which involves the splitting of a text into different parts or the use of different texts on the same topic. The parts are given to different learners to read. They must communicate with each other in order to find out the whole message or different views on the topic.
Term
key questions
Definition
the questions that the teacher uses to draw attention to the meaning or use of the structure, or the main ideas of a text.
Term
L1 interference
Definition
he effect of the mother tongue on a learner's production of the foreign language, causing errors.
Term
language skills
Definition
listening, speaking, reading and writing. also involve grammar and vocabulary.
Term
learner-centred teaching
Definition
Learning situations where information and ideas are brought to the class by learners and used as learning material, and which are concerned with the interests, needs, learning styles, feelings, lives and/or values of learners.
Term
learning strategy
Definition
A process or technique which a learner uses to help herself learn a language
Term
learning style
Definition
The way a particular learner learns something; their preferred style of working.
Term
lexis
Definition
Another term for vocabulary.
Term
lexical set
Definition
A group of related words, a word family
Term
meaningful drill
Definition
A drill which cannot be performed correctly without an understanding of the meaning of what is said.
Term
mechanical drill
Definition
A drill which requires learners to produce correct examples of the language without needing to think about the meaning of the sentences.
Term
metalanguage
Definition
Language used for talking about language, e.g. the use of grammatical terms (noun, verb, etc) or linguistic terms (e.g. paralinguistics)
Term
method
Definition
a set of techniques and procedures
Term
micro-teaching
Definition
A teaching situation which has been reduced in some way (e.g. the teacher's task is simplified, the lesson is very short, the number of learners is small). It is often used on training courses to concentrate on one particular aspect of a trainee's teaching and can involve real students or fellow trainees acting as students.
Term
mistake
Definition
A slip of the tongue which the learner can self-correct when challenged because it is not caused by lack of knowledge. A mistake is sometimes referred to as a performance error.
Term
observation
Definition
Gathering information by watching a class in order to describe what is happening.
Term
plenary
Definition
Whole class activity, often at the feedback stage.
Term
personalisation
Definition
When learners communicate about themselves or their own lives (also personalised task).
Term
presentation
Definition
A stage in the lesson when a language item is introduced for the first time.
Term
pre-teach
Definition
To prepare learners for an activity by introducing new language before starting the topic.
Term
productive skills
Definition
Speaking and writing - learners are required to produce the language.
Term
project
Definition
A kind of task-based activity which usually involves an extended amount of independent work either by an individual student or group of students.
Term
pyramid discussion
Definition
A form of group activity in which the class is divided into groups. After some " time, the pairs are joined together and continue the discussion. This procedure is continued until there is only one group, consisting of the whole class.
Term
rank
Definition
To put items in a certain order, often in order of preference or importance.
Term
realia
Definition
Things from real life which are used as a teaching aid.
Term
realistic drill
Definition
A drill which is disguised to resemble a natural conversational drill.
Term
receptive skills
Definition
Listening and reading - learners are receiving language and processing it, without producing it.
Term
simulation
Definition
A group activity which imitates (simulates) real life situations. Learners play themselves
Term
task-based learning
Definition
A description of learning which involves the performance of a specified task or tasks.
Term
teaching space
Definition
The area that a teacher uses in the classroom while teaching.
Term
transcript
Definition
A written record of what happens in a classroom.
Term
transition
Definition
The way a teacher makes a link between two separate parts of a lesson.
Term
usage
Definition
Refers to examples of language that are correct grammatically and have meaning, but which have no communicative value.
Term
use
Definition
The way in which a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate in a particular situation for a particular purpose. Rules of use refer to knowledge of when and with whom an item should be used i.e. appropriacy.
Term
workshop
Definition
A task-based group activity which involves the completion of a specified task. All members of the group will contribute something to the completion of the task (e.g. trainees produce some teaching material).
Term
problem-solving activity
Definition
An activity where learners have to solve a problem (e.g. choose the best applicant for a job from several descriptions of applicants).
Term
Lexical item
Definition
a piece of vocabulary to be taught - not only the meaning of single words but also phrases, idioms, etc.
Term
Pronoun
Definition
A word which is used instead of a noun perhaps because you have already talked about the person or thing, eg I, they, which.
Term
Verb
Definition
A word which describes an action or a state of being, eg eat, like, know.
Term
Adverb
Definition
A word which describes or gives more information about a verb or an adjective, eg he walked quickly, she danced well.
Term
Adjective
Definition
A word which describes something or someone, eg beautiful, happy, long.
Term
Preposition
Definition
A word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show time, place or direction, eg at, on, in.
Term
Preposition
Definition
A word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show time, place or direction, eg at, on, in.
Term
Conjunction
Definition
A word which connects words and phrases in a sentence, eg but, and, although.
Term
Determiner
Definition
A word which is used before a noun to show which particular example of the noun you are referring to, eg this pencil, your shoes.
Term
Interjection
Definition
An interjection is a word that is used to express emotion, eg Oh no! Gosh! Ow!
Term
Meaning
Definition
What idea the word shows and what contexts the word applies to.
Term
Connotation
Definition
Learners need to know if the word has a positive or a negative sense to it. For example, the words 'slim' and 'skinny' both mean thin but one has a positive connotation (slim) and the other (skinny) doesn't.
Term
Collocation
Definition
Learners need to know which words go with the word they are learning. For example, we make beds but do housework.
Term
Word families
Definition
Learners need to know other words that are formed from the same word, for example, kind, unkind, kindness, kindly.
Term
Register
Definition
Learners need to know if the word should be used in formal or informal situations. For example, assist and help have the same meaning but assist is more formal then help.
Term
phrasal verb
Definition
verb plus particle, having one complete meaning (eg, prop sth up, hold on, climb down)
Term
multiword unit (chunk)
Definition
two or more words that have one complete meaning (eg, bear in mind, in front of, of course)
Term
affixation
Definition
adding prefixes or suffixes to a root word (eg, untie, resecure; equipment, treatment)
Term
compounding
Definition
putting two or more words together to make one word (eg, handbook, shoulder-bag, doghouse)
Term
collocation
Definition
two or more words that frequently go together (eg, black coffee, dark chocolate, naked body, bare feet)
Term
transitive
Definition
a verb with a direct object (eg, bring, hit, get over)
Term
intransitive
Definition
a verb without a direct object (eg, go, appear, get up)
Term
homonyms
Definition
words that sound the same but have different meanings (eg, bear / bare, accept / except)
Term
co-hyponyms
Definition
words that are members of the same group (eg, shoes, sandals, slip-ons)
Term
inseparable
Definition
this describes phrasal verbs that cannot take a direct object between the verb and the particle (eg, get over sth, get away with sth)
Term
separable
Definition
this describes phrasal verbs that can take a direct object between the verb and the particle (eg, get sth back)
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