1. Primary Succession
2. Secondary Succession

• There is also aquatic succession

1. Bare rock
2. Moses and lichens grow
3. Soil develops and grasses begin to grow
4. Soil thickens and smaller shrubs grow
5. Trees start to grow

1. Fire or other disaster
2. Annual plants
3. Grasses and perennials
4. Grasses, shrubs, pines, young oaks, hickorys
5. Mature oak and hickory forest

1. Open source of water (Deep)
2. Source of water shrinks as things accumulate on the bottom
3. All water is gone and replaced by fertile soil
4. Plants and animals move in

1. Ice Cores
2. Fossil Records
3. Soil Cores
4. Corals
5. Historical Records
6. Tree Cores-Dendrochronology
7. Sedimentary
8. Glaciers

1. Gas trapped in ice gives us the CO₂ levels
2. Oxygen Isotopes in the H20 (O16+018)
3. Salts
4. Easily dated by counting Firn Rings (But a pretty expensive date) 
5. Can contain volcanin ash layers

1. Pollen records
2. Micro Fossils

• Diatoms

1. Tell us annual growth differences
2. Tells us about disasters that may have happened
3. We can go back as far as 20,000 years by linking dead trees

1. Large rates of spp migration because of glacial retreats
2. CO₂ causes ocean acidification and can chang the carbon to nitrogen ration on plant tissues which effects herbivores

• Produce long-term with levels of productivity relatively equal
• Produce long-term without reducing long-term productivity
• Sustain human population and culture

• Nutrient-cycling and availability
• Elimanate Monocultures
• Rotating crops
• Maintain soil
• Maintain favorable ration of energy per calorie in food produced relative to the energy required to produce that calorie of food
• Pest control

• Minimize crops that tend to deplete soils of nutrients
• Concentrate on crops with most of their biomass useable as food
• Maintain pH closer to neutral lime

• Strip some nutrients from the system
• Reduce ability of the soil to maintain the crops
• Susceptible to pathogen and to pests

• Reduce tilling
• Increase organic matter (Organic matter holds onto water very well)
• Limit irrigation to prevent soil salinization

How to maintain   favorable ratio of energy per calorie in food produced relative to the energy required to produce that calorie of food?

• Lower trophic level
• Consumers that have high trophic efficiencies

• Match crops to environment
• Intercropping
• Arboriculture
• Permaculture- Perennial crops
• Decrease reliance on synthetic fertilizer
• Integrated pest management

• Oil
• Coal
• Natural Gas
• Wood
• Food 
• Biomass
• Peat

1. Burn Fuel to produce heat
2. Boil H₂O under high pressure
3. Hot, high pressure vapor spins the fins of turbines
4. Gas expands and cools
5. Fins of turbine spin --> Coneced to coil of wire --> Rotates in magnetic field --> Create electric current
6. H₂O vapor cooled and returned

1. (Sun) Potential energy (Increase in Entropy)
2. (Burner) Heat energy (Decrease in entropy)
3. (Spinning turbine) Mechanical energy
4. (Generator) Electrical energy

• Pesticides (includes herbicides, insecticides and fungicides)
• Natural predators/parasitoids
• Species diversity- (Intercropping, crop rotation, co-planting)
• Integrated pest managements 
• Traditional Plant Breeding

• Use sustainable practices and use pesticides only as a last resort
• Avoid broad spectrum pesticieds
• Make sure timing and dosage is right
• Use pesticides that have short half lives and are not subject to bioaccumulation

• Electrochemical potential energy
• Electronegativity
• Oxidations-Reactant loses electrons
• Reduction-Reactant gains electrons