1. All living matter consists of cells

2. Cells are the structural and functional units of life.

3. All cells come from preexisting cells

Eukaryote: meaning "true nucleus", contain membrane-bound organelles including a nucleus

Prokaryote: bacteria, lacking nucleus and most organelles, DNA is condensed into nuceoid, almost always have cell wall

Catabolic: the breakdown of large chemicals which results in release of energy.

Anabolic: build up of large chemicals and requires energy.

C ytosine

U racil

T hymine

the

Pie (as in pyrimidine)

Cytosine, Uracil, and Thymine are pyrimidines.

Adenine and Guanine are purines.

Extensive membrane network of cisternae. Connected to the nuclear envelope.

Smooth ER: synthesis of lipids and steroids, metabolism of carbs.

Rough ER: studded with ribosomes. Site of protein synthesis.

Site of protein production. Synthesized by the nucleolus. Made up of two subunits, one small, one large. The smaller unit binds to the mRNA, larger binds to tRNA and amino acids.

May be membrane-bound or free.

Mitosis: 2N---2N

occurs in all autosomal cells. Homologous chromosomes do not pair up. Crossing over does not occur.

Meiosis: 2N---1N

Occurs in sex cells only. Homologous chromosomes pair up at the metaphase plate forming tetrads. Crossing over can occur.

Either the failure of homologous crs. to separate properly during meiosis I or the failure of sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis II.

The resulting zygote might have either 3 copies of the crs. (trisomy) or a single copy (monosomy)

Genetic abnormality in which there are 3 copies of a chromosome instead of the normal 2.

Examples:

 Downs syndrome=trisomy 21

Edwards syndrome=trisomy 18

Trisomy of sex crs can also occur:

XXY=Klinefelters syndrome

Form of aneuploidy with the presence of only one crs instead of the usual two.

Examples:

Turner's Syndrome- one X crs instead of two.

Cri du chat-partial monosomy caused my deletion of end of crs 5

When a plant cell is in a hypotonic solution, resulting in a higher osmotic pressure and net flow of water into the cell.

Follicular Stage

Ovulation

Luteal Stage

Menstruation

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aka: catamenia, menses

Shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium)

Approx. Day 1-4

aka: proliferative phase

A rise in FSH (follicle stimulating hormone). As the follicle grows and matures, it secretes increasing amounts of estradiol and estrogen. This causes a new endometrium to form.

Synthesized and secreted by gonadotropins in the anterior pituitary gland. Stimulates the growth and recruitment of immature ovarian follicles in the ovary in females.

In males, stimulates maturation of seminiforous tubules and spermatogenesis.

Phase of menstrual cycle in which a mature ovarian follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum.

Triggered by a spike of LH (secreted by Ant. Pituitary-which is controlled by the hypothalamus)

FSH

Where is it produced and secreted, how does it effect males, females, etc.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone: produced and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary, secretion controlled by the hypothalamus.

In both males and females: maturation of germ cells

In males: induces sertoli cells to secrete inhibin and stimulates formation of zona occludens

In females: initiates follicular growth (sp. granulosa cells). With rise of inhibin B, FSH ↓ in late follicular phase. This is critical in selecting only the most advanced follicle to proceed to ovulation. At the end of the luteal phase, there is a slight ↑ in FSH that is important in starting the next ovulatory cycle.

Dust/alveolar macrophages-located in pulmonary alveoli

Histiocytes-located in connective tissue

Kupffer cells-located in kidney

Microglia-located in neural tissue

Epithelioid cells-located in granulomas

Osteoclasts-located in bone

Sinusoidal lining cells-located in spleen

Mesangial cells-located in kidney

Luteinizing hormone: Produced by ant. pituitary. Controlled by GnRH

 In females: triggers ovulation and corpus luteum development.

In males: aka: interstitial cell stimulating hormone, stimulates leydig cell production of testosterone.

S eminiferous tubules

E pididymis

V as deferens

E jaculatory duct

N (othing)

U rethra

P enis

Location of sperm maturation.

Divided into three regions (head, body, tail).

Sperm that move from the seminiferous tubules into the head of the epididymis are incomplete (lacking motility and fertilization capabilities).

** sperm is not fully mature until they reach the female reproductive tract. (capacitation)

Connect urinary bladder to outside of body.

In males: carries semen as well as urine through the penis.

In females: urethra is shorter and emerges above the vaginal opening.

DNA is semiconserved in the fact that each new daughter helix contains an intact strand from the parent helix and a newly synthesized strand.

semiconservative=1 new strand+ 1parent strand

Double stranded helix of DNA with sugar-phosphate chains on the outside and bases pairing up in the middle.

T=A (T forms 2H-bonds w/A)

G≡C (G forms 3H-bonds w/C)

The more G≡C content, the more tightly bound the strands will be

DNA→DNA

5'-3'direction

DNA→RNA

5'-3' direction

RNA→Protein

5'-3' direction

DNA has 4 letters (A, T, C, G)

Proteins have 20 'words' (amino acids)

3 'letters'=triplet code for amino acid (codon)

*genetic code is universal for almost all org.

64 different codons, but only 20 amino acids

*more than one codon codes for an amino acid

Transformation

Conjugation

Transduction

Transfer of genetic material b/w 2 bacteria that are temporarily joined. A cytoplasmic conjugation bridge is formed through which DNA is transferred from donor male (+) type recipient female (-) type. Only occurs in bacteria w/ sex factors.

*Hfr: high frequency of recombination

Phage DNA takes control of the host bacterium's genetic machinery and manufactures numerous progeny. Bacterial cell wall bursts (lyses), releasing new virions.

If initial infection takes place on plated culture, a plaque will form.

Endoderm

Ectoderm

Mesoderm

White Blood Cells. Cells of the immune system, protecting the body from foreign materials and infectious diseases. Can be divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Type of leukocyte---granulocyte. Most abundant of WBCs-found in bloodstream  . Phagocytic. First immune cells to arrive at site of infection (through chemotaxis). Main component of pus. lobed nuclei.

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Granulocytes that have lobed nuclei. Antigen presenting cells 

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Least abundant leukocyte. Release histamine, causing inflammatory response.

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Leukocyte---agranulocyte. Present in the lymph system. B cells, T cells, and Natural killer cells.

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Leukocytes

     A. Granulocytes

          1. Eosinophils

          2. Basophils

          3. Neutrophils

     B. Agranulocytes

          1. Lymphocytes

               ii. T cells

               iii. Helper T cells

               iv. B cells

               v. Natural Killer cells

          2. Monocytes

               i. Macrophages

               ii. Dendritic cells

Share the 'vacuum cleaner' function of neutrophils (phagocytize). Live longer than neutrophils and present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens can be recognized again and killed.

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Antigen-presenting cells that activates T lymphocytes.

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Lymphocyte---agranulocyte---leukocyte

Make antibodies to bind to pathogens to enable their destruction. Also serve as memory system for producing antibodies.

Lymphocytes---agranulocytes---leukocytes.

CD4+, CD8+, gamma/delta cells

Lymphocytes---agranulocytes---leukocytes

Activate and direct other immune response cells. Essential in determining B cell antibody class switching, activation and growth of T cells, and in maximizing activity of macrophages.

1. Skin

2. Mucous coated epithelia

3. Macrophages

4. Inflammatory response

5. Interferons

O=universal donor

AB=universal recipient

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F SH

L H

A CTH

T SH

P rolactin

I (gnore)

G H

Consists of a fluid-filled cavity (coelom) surrounded by muscles. The pressure of fluid and action of muscles are used to change an organism's shape and produce movement (ie: burrowing, swimming)

Found in echinoderms, cnidarians, annelids, and nematodes.

Cylindrical stalk of 2 microtubules in the center, 9 pairs surrounding those two. Used for movement or sensory purposes.

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Nostrils

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveoli

2Acetyl CoA+6NAD⁺+2FAD+2GDP+2P_i+4H₂O

→ 4CO2+6NADH+2FADH₂+2ATP+4H⁺+2CoA

Pyruvate from glycolysis is transported into the cytoplasm of mitochondrial matrix.

Loses CO2, Acetyl group is transferred to CoA=Acetyl CoA

NAD⁺→NADH (reduction)

1. Glycolysis (cytoplasm of cell)

2. Pyruvate Decarboxylation (cytoplasm of inner mitochondrial membrane)

3. Krebs/Citric Acid Cycle

4. Electron Transport Chain

Glucose+2ADP+2P_i+2NAD⁺

→2Pyruvate+2ATP+2NADH+2H⁺+2H₂O

Sensory neurons

Information from internal or external environment→brain or spinal cord

Motor Neurons

Information from brain/spinal cord→body

Brain and Spinal cord

Integrative and Control Centers

Cranial Nerves and Spinal Nerves

Communication b/w CNS and rest of the body

Visceral Motor (involuntary)

Conducts impulses from the brain to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands

Somatic Motor (voluntary)

Conducts impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles

'fight or flight'

↑ heart rate and blood pressure, ↑ blood flow to skeletal muscles and ↓ gut motility

dilates bronchioles to increase gas exchange

*norepinephrine

'rest and digest'

conserves energy, restores resting activity levels

*acetylcholine

'farsightedness'

image is focused behind retina

'nearsightedness'

image is focused in front of retina

Cell body.

Contains nucleus and controls metabolic activity

Part of Diencephalon.

Relay and integration center for spinal cord and cerebral cortex.

Part of Diencephalon.

Controls visceral (autonomic) functions (hunger, thirst, sex drive, water balance, blood pressure, temp. regulation, etc)

Important role in endocrine system

Single sugar subunits

(glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose)

2 monosacharide subunits joined by dehydration synthesis

(maltose)

Polymers/chains of monosaccharide units

(glycogen, starch, cellulose)

Organic compound composed of C:H:O

usually ratio of 1:2:1

Body's principle form of energy.

Lipid containing a phosphate groups and nitrogen containing alcohol.

(lecithin, cephalin)

Ester of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols

(lanolin)

3 fused cyclohexane rings and 1 fused cyclopentane ring.

(cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen, corticosteroids)

Fatty acid-like carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and 6-membered C rings@ each end.

(pigments-carotenes, xanthophylls)

Tetrapyrroles, four joined pyrrole rings (often complexed with a metal)

(heme, chlorophyll)

Polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (aka polypeptide).

Primary structure=sequence of amino acids

Secondary structure= coiling or folding to form helices and ß-pleated sheets

(arginine, lysine, histidine)

Proteins that:

• lower activation energy of a reaction
• increase the rate of reaction
• does not change ΔG of reaction
• is not changed or consumed during reaction

1. Law of segregation

2. Law of Independant Assortment

Ribonucleic acid.

Sugar is ribose.

Uracil is used instead of Thymine

Usually single-stranded

Found in nucleus and cytoplasm

mRNA, rRNA, tRNA

Messenger RNA.

Carries compliment of DNA strand sequence and transports it from the nucleus to the ribosomes.

Transfer RNA.

Small RNA in cytoplasm that aids in translation of mRNA's nucleotide code into a sequence of amino acids. Brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis.

Ribosomal RNA.

Structural component of ribosomes and most abundant RNA.

Synthesized in the nucleolus.

1. tRNA: brings aas to the ribosomes. Each aas has its own aminoacyl-tRNA sythetase (binds to aas and its corresponding tRNA)

2. ribosomes: 2 subunits bind together on mRNA. Ribosomes have 3 binding sites:

     1 for mRNA

     P site (peptidyl-tRNA site)-binds to tRNA attached to growing polypeptide chain

     A site (aminoacyl-tRNA site)-binds to incoming aminoacyl-tRNA complex

Initiation: begins when ribosome binds to start codon (AUG)

Elongation: peptide bond forms b/w amino acid on tRNA in P site and amino acid on tRNA in A site. tRNA in P site release, ribosome moves along mRNA 3 nucleotides.

Termination: elongation continues until termination code is reached in A site (UAA, UAG, UGA)

A stop codon is reached along the mRNA and a release factor enters the A site.

(UAA, UAG, UGA)

Sequence of nontranscribable DNA

Repressor binding site

Repressor is bound to operator and an inducer must bind to the repressor for RNA polymerase to begin transcription.

Usually structural genes code for enzymes and the inducer is subtrate. Thus, enzymes are only produced when needed (ex: lactose as substrate&inducer results in permease and beta-galactosidase)

12-24 hhrs following ovulation

Fusion of sperm and egg

1. 32 hrs

2. 60 hrs

3. 72 hrs

Unicellular eukaryote.

(amoeba, paramecia, euglena)

• 'stinging nettle'
• diploblastic (two layers of cells)
• Contain nerve nets that control muscular and sensory functions
• Contain mesoglea (jelly-like substance)
• Single opening acts as mouth and anus
• (anemones, coral, jellyfish, hyrda)

Invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, segemented body, and jointed appendages.

(insects, arachnids, crustaceans, etc)

Pulmonary artery→lungs→pulmonary vein→left atrium→left ventricle→aorta→arteries→arterioles→capillaries GAS EXCHANGE →venules→veins→Superior Vena Cava or Inferior Vena Cava→right atrium→right ventricle→pulmonary artery

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Platelets in contact with exposed collagen of damaged vessels release a chemical causing neighbor platelets to adhere to one another forming a platelet plug.

Platelets in contact with exposed collage secrete platelet tissue factor I which causes prothrombin from the liver to become thrombin. Thrombin in turn converts fibrinogen to fibrin which traps blood cells leading to clot formation.

Involved in glucose regulation and protein metabolism. Increases blood glucose levels by promoting protein breakdown and gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis. Antagonistic to the effects of insulin.

(ex: cortisol and cortisone)

Regulate plasma levels of Na and K, thus controlling extracellular walter volume. Aldosterone causes active resorption of Na and passive resorption of water in the nephron.

Increases blood volume and blood pressure.

*not controlled by ACTH

Secreted in small quantities in both males and females

(ex: androgens- androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone)

Catecholamine, hormone and neurotransmitter that increases conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver&muscle tissue. This increases blood glucose levels and basal metabolic rate.

Increases rate and strength of heart beat and dilates and constricts blood vessels.

 Involved in 'fight or flight' responses

Produced by adrenal glands

Catecholamine, hormone and neurotransmitter. Involved in 'fight or flight' response and increases rate and strength of heart beat and dilates and constricts blood vessels.

Produced by adrenal glands.

Divided into the Anterior (adenohypophysis) and Posterior (neurohypophysis) Portions

Tri-lobed gland at the base of brain. 

Functionally linked to hypothalamus by pituitary stalk.

'Master Endocrine Gland' but controlled by hypothalamus.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

(adenohypophysis)

Produces GH, Prolactin, ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH, MSH

*GH and Prolactin are direct hormones, the rest are tropic hormones.

Posterior Pituitary Gland

(Neurohypophysis)

Prolactin

(aka: leutotropic hormone)

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone

CRH

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

TSH

Produced by Adrenohypophysis

Stimulates thyroid gland to synthesize and release thyroid hormones (thyroxin, triiodothyronine)

Produced by posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis).

Positive feedback loop

Secreted during childbirth, causes uterine wall contractions

Also induced by suckling, causing milk production/secretion

Antidiuretic Hormone

ADH

aka: vasopressin

Produced by Neurohypophysis

↑ permeability of nephron collecting ducts to H2O which ↑ H2O reabsorption and blood volume

Secreted when plasma osmolarity ↑ as sensed by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus or when blood volume ↓ as sensed by baroreceptors in the circulatory system.

Bi-lobed structure on the vertical surface of trachea.

Produces and secretes thyroxin, triiodothyronine and calcitonin.

↓ [Ca2+] in plasma by inhibiting the release of Ca2+ from bone

Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone.

↑ [Ca2+] in plasma through negative feedback loop by activation of calcium-sensing receptors on parathyroid cells.

Increases bone resorption and decreases calcium secretion in kidneys while increasing phosphate excretion in kidneys.

Thyroid hormones are undersecreted or not secreted at all.

Results in ↓ metabolism, cold intolerance, weight gain, etc.

Oversecretion of thyroid hormones

↑ metabolism, excessive warmth, sweating, palpitations, weight loss, protruding eyes, etc.

Serves both endocrine and exocrine functions.

Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and digestive enzymes.

Endocrine (hormones) functions performed by Islets of Langerhans. 

Exocrine (digestive enzymes) functions performed by pancreatic acini

Found in the pancreas. Responsible for producing and secreting glucagon and insulin. Composed primarily of alpha and beta cells

α cells: glucagon

β cells: insulin and amylin

δ cells: somatostatin

PP cells: pancreatic polypeptide

Produced by beta cells in Islets of Langerhan in the pacreas.

Stimulates fat&protein degradation, conversion of glycogen→glucuse, and gluconeogenesis.

**↑ blood sugar levels.

Stimulates uptake of glucose by muscle and adipose cells, storage of glucose as glycogen in muscle and liver cells.

Produced by beta cells in Islets of Langerhan in the pancreas.

**↓ blood sugar levels.

4 small pea-shaped structures embedded in the posterior surface of thyroid.

Synthesize and secrete PTH, which ↑ [Ca²⁺] in blood.

Decrease blood volume by producing renin

Converts plasma protein angiotensin to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I angiotensin II. Angiotensin II stimulates secretion of aldosterone by adrenal cortex.

Aldosterone restores blood volume by ↑Na reabsorption@ the kidney, which ↑H₂O

Angiotensin→angiotensin I→angiotensin II →aldosterone

Mineralocorticoid. Produced by adrenal cortex, stimulated by hormones produced in the kidney.

↑reabsorption of Na, H2O and ↑secretion of K in kidneys.

↑blood volume, thus ↑blood pressure

PTH affect on [Ca2+] vs. Calcitonin

(↑ or ↓)

PTH increases plasma calcium concentration.

Calcitonin decreases this concentration.

*Remember: Calcitonin tones down calcium

1. Pineal gland   2. Pituitary  3. Thyroid   4. Thymus   5. Adrenal  6. Pancreas

7. Ovary 8. Testes.

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Gastrointestinal Hormones

(3 main groups)

Peptides

Gastrins

Secretins

Gastrin and cholecystokinin.

Ingested food stimulates stomach to release gastrin.

Cholecystokinin responsible for gall bladder secreations and release of pancreatic enzymes (bile).

Glucagon, Secretin.

Secretin controls secretions in the duodenum, and homeostasis through the body.

Glucagon increases blood sugar levels.

Cerebellum

Pons

Medulla

Compact Bone

(aka: cortical bone)

Forms the cortex (outer layer) of most bones. Denser than cancellous bone. Primary unit of compact bone is the osteon.

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Contains bone's blood and nerve supply.

Surrounded by lamellae.

Axial Skeleton

(5 parts)

Pectoral girdle, arms&forearms, hands, legs, feet and pelvis.

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1) Pectoral Girdles (4 bones) - Left and right Clavicle (2) and Scapula (2).

2) Arm and Forearm (6 bones) - Left and right Humerus (2) (Arm), Ulna (2) and Radius (2) (Fore Arm).

3) Hands (58 bones) - Left and right Carpal (16) (wrist), Metacarpal (10), Proximal phalanges (10), Middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4).

4) Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right os coxae (2) (ilium).

5) Thigh and leg (8 bones) - Femur (2) (thigh), Tibia (2), patella (2) (knee), and Fibula (2) (leg).

6) Feet (56 bones) - Tarsals (14) (ankle), Metatarsals (10), Proximal phalanges (10), middle phalanges (8), distal phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4).

Immoveable joint. Held together by a ligament.

Ex: TEETH  are connected to the jaw by fibrous joints

Partially moveable joints. Connected entirely of collagen.

(ex: pubic symphesis)

Moveable joint.

(ex: carpals of wrist)

Give muscle fibers their striated appearance. Basic unit of myofibril.

Composed of thick filaments, thin filaments, nebulin and titin.

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Spans entire length of thick filaments and overlapping portions of thick and thin filaments.

** During contraction, the A band does not change in size or length, but H zone and I band do.

Responsible for involuntary actions. Controlled by the autonomic nervous system and found in the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessel walls, etc.

Contains only one nucleus and lacks striation

Digestion is completed in the sm intestine. Vital for nutrient absorption

3 sections:

duodenum

jejunum

ileum

Produces amylase (carb digestion), tripsin (protein digestion), and lipase (fat digestion).

Also produces bicarbonate juices that neutralize the acidity of chyme.

Increases calcium in the blood by

(1) increasing the uptake of calcium from the gut into the blood

(2) decreasing the transfer of calcium from blood to the urine by the kidney

(3) increasing the release of calcium into the blood from bone.

Simple, automatic responses to simple stimuli.

Can be defined as reliable occurences of particular behavioral responses following a given environmental stimulus.

Controlled at the spinal cord (from afferent, to efferent )

Complex, coordinated, innate behavioral responses to specific patterns of stimulation in the environment.

The association of a normally autonomic or visceral response with an environment stimulus.

(ex: dogs that are fed after hearing a bell will eventually salivate only at the sound of the bell)

Conditioning responses to stimuli with the use of reward or reinforcement.

(B.F. Skinner)

Links the lack of a certain behavior with reward.

(ex: bird will receive food pellet if it does NOT peck on a yellow circle in its cage)

Produce long-term behavioral and physiological alterations in recipient animals.

(ex: pheromones can limit sexual reproduction in areas of high animal density)

That which surrounds an organism and is non-living.

Includes: climate, temperature, availability of light and water, and the local topology.

That which surrounds an organism and is living.

Includes: all living things that directly or indirectly influence the life of the organism including the relationships that exist between organisms