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| a polymer of α-glucose molecules; store energy in plant cells. |
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| a polymer of α-glucose molecules; store energy in animal cells. (differ in polymer branching). |
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| a polymer of β-glucose; structural molecules for walls of plant cells and wood. |
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| polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a nitrogen-containing group attached to ring. |
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| eletrons between atoms are shared. Covalent bonds occur when eletronegativities of the toms are similar. Can be single double or triple bonds. |
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| form when electrons are shared equally like O2. |
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| excellent solvent, ionic substances are soluble (dissolve) in water, has high heat capacity, has strong cohesion and high surface tension because of hydrogen bonding between water molecules, and has strong adhesion. |
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| are those that have carbon atoms. |
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| two sugar molecules joined by a glycosidic linkage. It’s made from condensation reaction (more specifically a dehydration reaction.) |
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| Polysaccharide consists of |
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| series of connected monosaccharides. |
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| insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar substances. 3 major groups are triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids. |
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| 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol. Triglycerides has saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated types. |
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| What are structures of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids? |
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| A saturated fatty acid has a single covalent bond between each pair of carbon atoms, hence, each carbon is saturated with hydrogens. Monounsaturated has one double bond. Polyunsaturated has two or more double bonds. |
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| Two fatty acid tails which are nonpolar and hydrophobic and a phosphate head head that is polar and hydrophobic. Hence the molecule is amphiphathic or has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. |
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| characterized by a backbone of four linked carbon rings. Ex: cholesterol, and certain hormones like testosterone and estrogen. |
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| Structural protein examples |
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| keratin in hair and horns of animals, collagen in connective tissues, and silk in spider webs. |
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| casein in milk, ovalbumin in egg whites, zein in corn seeds. |
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| Transport protein example |
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| membranes of cells that transport materials in/out of cells and as oxygen carrying hemoglobin in RBC. |
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| regulate rate of chemical reactions. |
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| polymers of amino acids covalently bonded. The bonds between amino acids are peptide bonds and the chain is a polypeptide or peptide. Each amino acid has an amino group, a –COOH, a H and R group. |
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| Primary structure of a protein describes |
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| the order of amino acids such as Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg. |
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| Secondary structure of a protein describes |
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| its three-dimensional shape resulting from hydrogen bonding between the amino and –COOH groups of adjacent amino acids. The bonding produces a spiral alpha helix or folded plane called beta pleated sheet. |
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| Tertiary structure of a protein describes |
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| additional three dimensionial shaping and often dominates the structure of globular proteins. Hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, hydrophobic effect and disulfide bonds. |
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| Quarternary structure describes a protein |
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| 2 or more separate peptide chains. Hemoglobulin for example, consists of 4 peptide chains that are held together by hydrogen bonding. |
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| 3 parts: a nitrogen base, a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group. |
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| Name of 4 nucleotides of DNA |
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| Adenine and Guanine are purines (mnemonic nine-nine-rine). Thymine and Cytosine are pyrimidines. Pairings are always : A-T and G-C. |
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| How are RNA different from DNA? |
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| Sugar in the nucletodies of RNA is ribose, DNA has deoxyribose as sugar. Thymine nucleotide does not occur in RNA, it’s replaced by uracil. A-U. RNA is usually single stranded and does not form a double helix. |
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| Catalyst accelerates the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy. The catalyst does not undergo a chemical change itself so it can be used over and over again. |
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| Globular proteins that act as catalysts (activators or deactivators) for metabolic reactions. |
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| Substance upon which enzyme acts. Ex, enzyme amylase catalyes the breakdown of the substrate amylose. |
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| What are some characteristics of Enzymes? |
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| Enzymes are substrate specific. An enzyme is unchanged as a result of a reaction so it can perform its enzymatic function repeatedly. It cataylyzes a reaction in both forward and reverse directions. Efficiency is affected by temp and pH. Standard suffix for enzymes is “ase”. |
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| What is induced-fit model of Enzyme? |
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Definition
| describes how it work. There is an active site with which the reactants readily interact because of the shape, polarity ,or orther characteristics of the active site The interaction of the reactant(substrate) and enzyme causes enzyme to change shape. |
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| nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes. Inorganic cofactors are often metal ions like Fe or Mg. Coenzymes are organic cofactors that usually donate or accept some component of a reaction, often electrons, like vitamins. |
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| union of the cofactor and the enzyme. |
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| adenosine triphosphate, common source of activation energy for metabolic reactions. Essentially an RNA adenine nucleotide with 2 additional phosphate groups. |
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| How do living systems regulate chemical reactions? |
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Definition
| One way is by regulating its enzyme. |
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| two kinds of binding sites, one an active site for substrate and one an allosteric site for an allosteric effector (activator or effector). |
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| binds to enzyme and induces enzyme’s active form. |
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| binds to enzyme and induces the enzyme’s inactive form. |
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| a substance that mimics the substrate and inhibits an enzyme by occupying the active site. |
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| Noncompetitive inhibition |
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| inhibitor that changes the shape of the enzyme which disables its enzymatic activity. Many toxins and antibiotics are noncompetitive inhibitors. |
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Definition
| enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate mattaches to an active site. |
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| Phospholipid membrane selectively permeates |
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| small, uncharged, polar molecules (H2O and CO2) and hydrophobic molecules (nonpolar like O2 and lipid soluble molecules such as hydrocarbons) Large polar molecules like glucose and all ions are IMPERMEABLE. |
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| Functions of Protein in plasma membrane |
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Definition
| channel proteins, ion channels, porins, carrier proteins, transport proteins, NaK pump, recognition proteins, adhesion proteins, receptor proteins. |
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| proteins that allow the passage of certain ions and small polar and small molecules through membranes. |
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| subunits manufactured in the nucleus and consist of RNA molecules and proteins. Two subunits labeled 60S and 40S, move across the nuclear envelope and into the cytoplasm where they are assembled into a single 80S ribosome. |
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| consists of stacks of flattened sacs involved in the production of various materials. Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesize proteins. Smooth ER, without ribosomes, synthesize lipids and steroids. |
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| group of flattened sacs arranged like a stack of bowls. Modif and package proteins and lipids into vesicles that often migrate and merge with plasma membrane to release their contents. |
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| vesciesl from a Golgi apparatus that contain digestive enzymes. Break down food, debris and foreign invaders like bacteria. Low pH (acidic). Not found in plant cells. |
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| break down various substances, including hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) forming H2O and O2, fatty acids, and amino acids. Commonly found in liver and kidney cells where they bkdn toxic substances. In plant cells, peroxisomes modify by products of photorespiration. |
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| carry out aerobic respiration, energy in the form of ATP is obtained from carbohydrates. |
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| carry out photo synthesis, the plant process of incorporating energy from sunlight into carbohydrates. |
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| Microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments |
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Definition
| three protein fibers of decreasing diameter respectively. All involved in establishing the shape of or in coordinating movements of the cytoskeleton. |
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| protein tubulin and provide support and motility for cellular activities. Found in spindle apparatus which guides the movement of chromosomes during cell division. Also in flagella and cilia, structures that provide motility. |
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| provide support for maintaining the shape of the cell. |
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| made of protein actin and are involved in cell motility. Found in muscle cells and in cells that move by changing shape, such as phagocytes. |
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| Centrioles and basal bodies |
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Definition
| act as MTOC (microtubule organizing centers). A pair of centrioles located outside the nuclear envelope gives rise of the microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus used during cell division. |
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| fluid filled, membrane bound bodies. Transport vesicles move materials between organelles or plasma membrane. Food vacuoles receives nutrients and often merge with lysosome that have digestive enzymes. |
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| in plants store starch, pigments and toxic substances. |
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| large bodies occupying most of interior of certain plant cells. Exert turgor, or pressure on the cell walls, thus maintain rigidity in the cell. |
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| found in plants, fungi, protists and bacteria. Develop outside the plasma membrane and provide support for the cell. In plants, cell wall consists mainly of cellulose. Fungi cell walls are made of cellulose or chitin. |
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| found in animals, in the area between adjacent cells (beyond the plasma membrane and the glycocalyx). Occupied by fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides secreted by the cells. |
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| anchor cells to one another or to provide passageway for cellular exchange. |
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| protein attachments between adjacent animal cells. For ex, desmosome consists of proteins(keratin) that bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability to tissues. |
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| tightly stitched seams between animal cells. The junction produces seal that prevents the passage of materials between the cells. |
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| passageways between cells that allow transfer of chemical or electrical signasl. The 2 kinds are gap junctions and plasmodesmata. |
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| narrow tunnels between animal cells that consist of proteins called connexins. Allows passage of ions and small molecules, thus allowing communication between cells through the exchange of materials. |
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| narrow channels between plant cells. A narrow tube of endoplasmic reticulum, called a desmotubule, surrounded by cytoplasm and plasma membrane, passes through the channel. |
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| Plant cells can be generally distinguished from animal cells by |
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Definition
| presence of cell walls, chloroplasts, central vacuoles in plants. Presence of lysosomes, centrioles, and cholesterol in animal cells. |
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Definition
| bacteria, cyanobacteria and archaebacteria lack all organelles. Consist of only a plasma membrane, DNA molecule, ribosomes, cytoplasma and often a cell wall. |
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| Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes |
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Definition
| Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, singled “naked” DNA molecule without proteins. Smaller ribosome (70S, with 50S and 30S subunits) compared with Eukaryotes (80S, with 60S and 40S subunits). Cell walls of bacteria are constructed from peptidoglycans. Flagella are not constructed of microtubules. |
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Definition
| collective movement of substance in the same direction in response to a force or pressure. Blood moving through a blood vessel is bluk flow. |
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| movement of substance from high to low concentrations and do not require energy. Simple diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, plasmolysis, facilitated diffusion and countercurrent exchange. |
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| diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane. When water moves into a body by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure (osmotic pressure) build up. Turgor pressure is osmotic pressure when water enters the cells of plants and microorganisms. |
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| diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane. Usually when different solutes are separated by selectively permeable membrane. |
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| movement of water out of a cell (osmosis) that results in the collapse of the cell that results in the collapse of the cell (especially plant cells with central vacuoles). |
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| diffusion of solutes or water through channel proteins in the PM. Aqauaporins aid the passage of water through PM. |
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| describes diffusion of substances between two regions in which substances are flowing in opposite directions. The diffusion of molecules are maximized because the relative motion of the molecules between the 2 regions in recreased. |
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| is the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires ATP. Transport proteins in PM transfer solutes like Na, K, Cl and H, amino acids, and monosaccharides across the membrane. |
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| uses vesciles or other bodies in the cytoplasm to move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane. Exocytosis, endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis). |
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| ATP generating process. Energy is extracted from glucose to form ATP. Glucose +6 O2 > 6 H2O + Energy. Aerobic respiration is divided into 3 components : glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. |
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Definition
| 1 glucose > 2 pyruvate. Mg are cofactors that promote enzyme activity. 2 ATP input, 2 NADH, 4ATP and 2 pyruvate are produced. (NADH is an energy-rich molecule. |
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| Krebs Cycle(citric acid cyle or TCA) |
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Definition
| pyruvate > acetyl CoA. For every pyruvate, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, and CO2 are produced. |
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| Oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
| process of extracting ATP from NADH and FADH2. e- from NADH and FADH2 pass along an e- transport chain. NADH provides e- that have enough energy to generate about 3 ATP, FADH2 generates about 2 ATP. Final e- acceptor of ETC is oxygen. |
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| Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation occur in |
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Definition
| Mitochondria. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the inner membrane which has convolutions called cristae. TCA and the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA occur in the matrix(inside the inner membrane.) |
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