Term
| Air has a higher oxygen content than water, but water must be in... |
|
Definition
| Solution to dissolve into the blood |
|
|
Term
| Respiratory surfaces in tetrapods must be... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Water loss from moist respiratory surfaces... |
|
Definition
| Increases the risk of desiccation on land |
|
|
Term
| In tetrapods, respiratory surfaces are confined to... |
|
Definition
| The inside of the body, like lungs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Decreases the surface tension of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe how a buccal pump works in amphibians. |
|
Definition
The nares and glottis coordinate opening and closing of the mouth.
1. Nares open, the glottis is closed
2. The glottis opens and old air exits through the nares while the animal swallows new air
3. Nares close
4. Nares open and the glottis closes; start the cycle over |
|
|
Term
| There is not much mixing of oxygenated (+O2) blood and deoxygenated (-O2) in amphibians because... |
|
Definition
| They have a buccal pump, which is also used for calling mates |
|
|
Term
| Amphibians have secondarily lost their lungs. What does this imply? |
|
Definition
| They must live in a moist environment because respiration occurs across the skin surface |
|
|
Term
| What is a gharial on crocodiles and why is it important? |
|
Definition
| It is a bulge of ejaculatory tissue on the nose of males that makes them more attractive to females |
|
|
Term
| Tetrapods have evolved these two well defined structures for respiratory purposes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If only a simple lung is present, what does that mean about the organism? |
|
Definition
| It has a lower activity level |
|
|
Term
| Reptiliamorpha mechanics: An aspiration pump which... |
|
Definition
| Uses long muscles in the thoracic cavity to move air in and out |
|
|
Term
| Non-avian reptiles use aspiration pumps and even more, crocodiles and alligators use... |
|
Definition
| A hepatic piston for respiration |
|
|
Term
| Trace the path of air through a human system. |
|
Definition
| Air enters the nostrils, passes through the nasopharynx, the oral pharynx, through the glottis and into the trachea. Then it enters the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of alveoli which are in the lungs and covered in dense capillary networks. The lungs are continuously ventilated by the diaphragm. The entire tract is lined by epithelial and mucous cells. |
|
|
Term
| How is O2 dissolved in mammalian systems? |
|
Definition
| In water through the aveolial cells and through 2 layers of tissue |
|
|
Term
| Describe the modified aspiration pump that mammals have. |
|
Definition
| They have parietal and visceral pleura that slide past each other to expand the lung. They are tightly held together like wet microscope slides |
|
|
Term
| What does the diaphragm do when mammals breath? |
|
Definition
-at rest, the diaphragm is relaxed
-diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity volume increases [inhale]
-diaphragm relaxes, the thoracic cavity volume decreases [exhale] |
|
|
Term
| What is a buccal pump involved in? |
|
Definition
| Lung ventilation powered by cranial musculature alone (passive exhalation)- seen in fish; some lizards have a secondarily derived buccal pump |
|
|
Term
| What is an expiration pump involved in? |
|
Definition
| Active exhalation powered by axial muscles (buccal pump is retained for inhalation)- seen in tetrapods |
|
|
Term
| What is an aspiration pump involved in? |
|
Definition
| Inhalation powered by axial muscles (amniotes) |
|
|
Term
| What is circulation and what is its primary function? |
|
Definition
| Circulation is the movement of fluids throughout the body; it functions in transport of wastes out of the body |
|
|
Term
| Blood picks up O2 and releases CO2... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Nutrients are transported from the intestines to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Urea is transported in blood to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The circulatory system also transports things like... |
|
Definition
| hormones and immune cells |
|
|
Term
| Mammals with high activity levels also have... |
|
Definition
| The most complex body plans |
|
|
Term
| Every circulatory system requires three basic elements. What are they? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is endocardium (also called endothelium)? |
|
Definition
| The epithelium lining the inner surface of the heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The cardiac muscle lining most of the heart walls |
|
|
Term
| What is visceral pericardium? |
|
Definition
| The epithelium lining the outer surface of the heart |
|
|
Term
| In a mammalian heart: The artia _____, the ventricles __________, the pulmonary circuit___________, and the systemic circuit _____________. |
|
Definition
1. receive blood from the heart
2. pump blood away from the heart
3. carries (-O2) blood from the lungs
4. carries the blood from the body |
|
|
Term
| What is the purpose of valves in the heart? |
|
Definition
| They prevent the back flow of blood between the heart chambers |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of gap junctions? |
|
Definition
| They span 2 plasma membranes and hold the 2 cells together |
|
|
Term
| Cells in the heart are interlocked to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The sinoartrail (SA) node is known as the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the 4 steps involved in controlling heart rhythm. |
|
Definition
1. Pacemaker generates the wave of signals to contract
2. Signals are delayed at the AV node.
3. Signals pass through the heart apex.
4. Signals spread throughout ventricles |
|
|
Term
| Why are Purkinje fibers (nerve fibers) only found in birds and mammals? |
|
Definition
| These organisms are endothermic and have an increased activity level, so they need the most efficient heart contractions and these fibers help strengthen the heart contractions |
|
|
Term
| What is the tunica intima? |
|
Definition
| The interior epithelial layer |
|
|
Term
| What is the tunica externa? |
|
Definition
| The connective tissue that provides elasticity so shape can be changed |
|
|
Term
| What is the tunica media? |
|
Definition
| The smooth muscle layer in the middle of veins and arteries. In veins, it doesn't let blood flow backward. In arteries, it helps regulate the flow |
|
|
Term
| Blood flows toward the heart in veins with (-O2) blood except in two cases. Name and describe them. |
|
Definition
| They are umbilical and pulmonary veins; there is a major drop in pressure when blood reaches capillary beds |
|
|
Term
| Plasma is 55% of the volume of human blood and contains... |
|
Definition
| 90% water, the salts, nutrients, wastes and gases of the blood, and antibodies and clotting agents; (Platelets cause fibrinogen) |
|
|
Term
| The binding of heme groups to red blood cells... |
|
Definition
| Allows )2 to be transported |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of blood cells? |
|
Definition
| Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets |
|
|
Term
| What type of stem cells can possibly become red blood cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| These 3 organs generate new cells in anamniotes. |
|
Definition
| The liver kidneys, and spleen |
|
|
Term
| In amniotes, the liver kidneys, and spleen serve to... |
|
Definition
| Filter the blood; marrow makes new cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 components of a heart of a spiny dog fish (Squalus)? |
|
Definition
1. sinus venosus which receives blood
2. the 2 atrium which pump blood forward into the ventricle
3. The ventricle, which is the primary pumping chamber
4. The conus arteriosus- where the pressure of blood drops |
|
|
Term
| A heart in a fish is a single circuit. Describe it. |
|
Definition
| The heart sends (+O2) blood to the gills and then to the body. |
|
|
Term
| If bony fish lungs are present... |
|
Definition
| They deliver (+O2) blood back to the systemic circuit rather than through a separate pulmonary circuit; mixing of blood is okay because lung respiration is minimal |
|
|
Term
| This type of septa divides the heart into partial or complete left and right chambers. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In most lungfish, blood from the lungs enters the left atrium and blood from the body (via the sinus venosus) enters... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lungfish separate blood in the ventricle by having a... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The spiral valve in the conus arteriosus of fish and frogs... |
|
Definition
| Directs blood either toward the aortic arches and toward the lungs or gills (-O2), or to the body (+O2) |
|
|
Term
| Amphibians have a ventricular trabeculae to... |
|
Definition
| Separate blood in the ventricle-the trabeculae are shelves/ridges extending from the walls of the ventricle |
|
|
Term
| Amniote hearts have a double circuit which implies... |
|
Definition
| (+O2) blood is sent to the body via the systemic circuit and (-O2) blood is carried to the lungs via the pulmonary circuit |
|
|
Term
| Turtles, snakes,and lizards have an incompletely divided heart meaning... |
|
Definition
| Their heart has three chambers but it can function like a 4 chambered heart |
|
|
Term
| The sinus venosus is seen... |
|
Definition
-As the pacemaker of basal vertebrates
-As the right atrium in birds
-As the SA node in mamammals |
|
|
Term
| The two ventricles are only present and completely separated in... |
|
Definition
| Birds,crocodiles, and mammals |
|
|
Term
| How many aortic arches do hagfish and lampreys have going through the gills? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Gnathostomes have a primitive pattern of... |
|
Definition
| 6 aortic arches passing through the gills and connecting to the ventral and dorsal aortae (all 6 form in embryos and some are lost in development) |
|
|
Term
| Sharks retain 5 of the 6 aortic arches. Describe them. |
|
Definition
Arch 1-lost during ontogeny; the 1st efferent becomes the efferent spiracular
Arch 2-loses the respiratory function and drains the 1st collecting loop into the internal carotid |
|
|
Term
| Actinopterygians and aortic arches |
|
Definition
| Arch 1 and 2 are lost; Arch 3-6 are present and pass through the gills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Arch 1 is lost, Functions of arches 2-4 are changed |
|
|
Term
| Amphibian (frog) aortic arch development is described by... |
|
Definition
Arch 1 and 2 being lost, Arch 3 becomes the internal carotid which irrigates (takes blood) to the brain
The external carotid originates from the base of the brain and carries blood to the jaw region
Arch 4 is the systemic arch
Arch 5 is lost
Arch 6 becomes a vessel |
|
|
Term
| Reptiles and their aortic arches... |
|
Definition
Arch 1 and 2 are lost
Arch 3 becomes the internal carotid
Arch 4 is the systemic arch
Arch 5 is lost
Arch 6 is the base of the pulmonary artery |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Arch 1 and 2 are lost
Arch 3 becomes the internal carotid
Arch 4 is the right aortic arch [no left aortic arches are present)
Arch 5 is lost
Arch 6 is the pulmonary artery |
|
|
Term
| Aortic arch development in mammals |
|
Definition
Arch 1 and 2 are lost
Arch 3 becomes the internal carotid
Arch 4 is the systemic arch
Arch 5 is lost
Arch 6 is the pulmonary artery
*the left aortic arch is the main aortic arch, but the right arches are present as well!!! |
|
|
Term
| The fluid of the lymphatic system is called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vessels of the lymphatic system have veins that drain back into... |
|
Definition
| The circulatory system at the subclavian veins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| They filter lymph and preform immune functions like attacking viruses and bacteria |
|
|
Term
| The fluid and proteins blood loses through diffusion across capillary walls are returned via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The management of solute and water concentration |
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation is achieved by... |
|
Definition
| Indirect regulation of solutes and the movement of water; interstitial fluid via the blood helps too |
|
|
Term
| What is the primary organ involved and its function in osmoregulation? |
|
Definition
| The organ is the kidney and it serves to filter metabolic wastes and balance the ion concentration |
|
|
Term
| Ions and wastes dissolve in water so... |
|
Definition
| The water balance is maintained in osmoregulation |
|
|
Term
| There are 3 forms of nitrogenous wastes. What are they in detail? |
|
Definition
*Ammonia-toxic, used mostly by aquatic animals
*Urea-has a metabolic cost, used by mammals, amphibians, sharks, and some bony fish
*Uric acid-high metabolic cost, used by birds, reptiles, insects, and snails |
|
|
Term
| What is the first key function of an excretory system? |
|
Definition
| Filtration-water and solutes are forces by blood pressure across the selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries and into the excretory tubule. The tubule collects filtrate and large items stay in the blood. |
|
|
Term
| What is the second key function of an excretory system? |
|
Definition
| Reabsorption- the transport of epithelium selectively reclaims valuable substances (glucose and some salts). This influences concentration, thus it influences osmosis. |
|
|
Term
| What is the third key function of an excretory system? |
|
Definition
| Secretion- blood to filtrate; other substances (toxins, excess ions) are extracted and added to the tubule. |
|
|
Term
| What is the fourth key function of an excretory system? |
|
Definition
| Excretion-the filtrate leaves the system and the body |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
Efferent arterioles are smaller to... |
|
Definition
| Increase pressure-they split up into Peritubular capillaries for maintaining gradients and reabsorption |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
What is the function of the proximal tubule? |
|
Definition
| Regain water, balance pH, keep drugs, nutrients and NaCl in the system |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
The vasa recta is concurrent exchanger which... |
|
Definition
| Maintains high salt gradients to passively save water |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
The antidiuretic hormone [ADH] increases... |
|
Definition
| Permeability of the collecting ducts |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
-Loop of Henle component
*The descending loop of Henle is... |
|
Definition
| Permeable to water but not salts |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
-Loop of Henle component
*The ascending loop of Henle is... |
|
Definition
| Permeable to salts but not water; this helps establish the gradient for the descending loop of Henle |
|
|
Term
(The mammalian excretory system anatomy)
-Loop of Henle component
*Distal Tubule |
|
Definition
| Secretion and reabsorption |
|
|
Term
| A nephron is the funtional unit of a kidney and... |
|
Definition
| It is the site of filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion |
|
|
Term
| Collecting ducts join tubes together to... |
|
Definition
| Send products to the pelvic region for secretion |
|
|
Term
| Secretion only occurs via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What percentage of all products from the collecting tubes is excreted as urine in mammals? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Arise from the nephric ridge/intermediate mesoderm
-Classified types by which portion is functional in the adult |
|
|
Term
| Pronephros (a type of kidney) |
|
Definition
-Anterior in the organism; drain into the duct
-Seen in embryonic and larval hagfish, lamprey, many fish, amphibians
-ONLY hagfish retain a functional one as an adult |
|
|
Term
| Mesonephros (a type of kidney) |
|
Definition
-The middle portion of the nephric ridge
-functions in the embryo and larvae of ALL vertebrates
-NOT functional in adult amniotes
-Mesonephric tubules: epididymis and ductus deferens in males |
|
|
Term
-Mesonephros and more caudal metanephros
-This kidney is found in most anamniote vertebrates (lampreys, sharks, actinopterygians, and amphibians) |
|
Definition
| Opisthonephros (a type of kidney) |
|
|
Term
-Most caudal portion of the nephric ridge
-The functional kidney of adult amniotes
-The cranial mesonephric tubules and archinephric duct carry sperm in males; no urinary function; lost in females
-Metanephros is drained by the ureters, which are newly evolved structures |
|
Definition
| Metanephros (a type of kidney) |
|
|
Term
| Ureters drain directly into... |
|
Definition
The cloaca of some reptiles;
*birds lose the bladder as an adaptation for flight
*smakes lose the bladder because of their body form
*mammals, lizards,turtles and some amphibians store urine in the bladder |
|
|
Term
| Advanced opisthonephros have greater... |
|
Definition
| segmentation so organisms can be terrestrial |
|
|
Term
| Metanephros allow organisms to be even more terrestrial because... |
|
Definition
| The duct is retained but the function is retained |
|
|
Term
The ten important stages in the development of aortic arches
[This denotes the first organisms to show this character] |
|
Definition
1) Dorsal and ventral aortae in adults and embryos
2)8+ aortic arches [lampreys]
3)6 aortic arches during development
4)Collector arterial loops with pre and posttrematic vessels [Sharks]
5)1st and 2nd aortic arches lost or modified [Actinopterygians]
6)Pulmonary artery and vein and embryonic ducts arteriosus [Dipnoi]
7)Inter-atrial septum fully developed
8) Carotids develop from the third aortic arch and parts of the dorsal and ventral aortae [crocs and birds]
9) 4th Right arch= systemic arch [birds]
10) 4th aortic arch (left) =systemic arch [mammals] |
|
|
Term
Osmoregulation in freshwater teleosts like carp
* is the main point |
|
Definition
*lose ions; gain water
-Some water enters the mouth with food
-As water moves over gills, ammonia and water are lost while salts are actively taken up
-Urine is hyposmotic to blood and copious; some urea and ammonia are lost |
|
|
Term
Osmoregulation in saltwater teleosts like cod
* is the main point |
|
Definition
*lose water; gain ions
-Fish drinks water and as it passes the gills, ammonia and water are lost and Na+/Cl- are actively excreted
-Urine is hyposmotic to blood, but not so copious. It has ammonia, some urea, and divalent ions. |
|
|
Term
Osmoregulation in sharks
* is the main point |
|
Definition
*Gain water
-Water and salt enter the mouth with food
-At the gills, water is absorbed and there's a net loss of urea (back transport maintains a high blood level)
-Urine is hyposmotic to blood and copious; it contains some urea
-The digitiform gland balances salts |
|
|
Term
* Evaporative water loss is key
-concentration of urine is high
-birds, some lizards, and turtles have salt-excreting glands to excrete salt through their nostrils
-mammals have a loop of Henle |
|
Definition
| Osmoregulation by tetrapods- broad overview |
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation of a frog on land |
|
Definition
-evaporative water loss through skin
-Urine is hypotonic to blood
-Some water is reabsorbed in the bladder and urea is lost |
|
|
Term
| -Water and active salt uptake occurs through the skin |
|
Definition
| Osmoregulation of a frog in water |
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation of a lizard and its relatives |
|
Definition
-Urine is nearly isotonic to blood and contains uric acid
-Water reabsorption occurs in the cloaca, intestine, and bladder |
|
|
Term
-Evaporative water loss by panting in thermoregulation
-Urine is isotonic or slightly hypertonic to blood
-Urine is primarily uric acid
-Water reabsorption occurs in the intestine and the cloaca |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation of mammals |
|
Definition
-Evaporative water loss by panting in thermoregulation and sweat glands in most animals
-Urine is hypertonic which is made possible by the kidney countercurrent multiplier system
-Urine contains urea |
|
|
Term
| Amphibians are susceptible to evaporative water loss because of... |
|
Definition
| Their thin skin and cutaneous respiration |
|
|
Term
| Amphibians have independent evolutionary events of... |
|
Definition
*Secreting lipids and waxes as part of a wiping behavior to look shiny
*A change in posture due to their water reabsorption patch near the cloaca that absorbs water from the ground (up to 70-80% of water uptake sometimes)
*Some have a special bladder for water storage |
|
|
Term
| Additional independent evolutionary events of amphibians... |
|
Definition
*Specialized skin cells to reduce the heat load by reflecting UV rays
*Cocoons for skin shedding events~they can stay under the mud for a few months
*Estivation- slowing down body processes and entering a burrow~they do this to avoid bad environments (ex. drought) |
|
|
Term
| Reptiles have thick, keratinized skin to... |
|
Definition
| Avoid water loss; some have salt- secreting glands |
|
|
Term
| Environmental challenges and solutions for freshwater creatures |
|
Definition
1. Problem:Excess water uptake; must excrete water *Solution: Waste excreted as cheap ammonia
2. Problem: Ammonia is toxic *Solution: water used as a solvent (gills are the primary excretory organ)
-Additional costs-must actively transport solutes for retention
-Aquatic amphibians don;t use ammonia |
|
|
Term
| Environmental challenges and solutions for saltwater creatures |
|
Definition
1. Problem: Excessive water loss (must conserve water)
2. Problem 2: Excessive salt uptake (must excrete salts)
*Solution 1: Become isosmotic (hagfish, marine teleosts) - lose gglomerulus to decrease water loss
*Solution 2: Become hyperosmotic (some elasmos)-retain urea (somewhat costly), minimally toxic because water is a solvent-urea (mammals) requires less water excretion-increase water uptake~cost=retain glomerulus (increased metabolism)-excrete water
*Solution 3: Develop special salt excretion glands (some elasmos, teleosts)-have a rectal gland and salt glands on gills |
|
|
Term
| Environmental challenges and solutions for terrestrial creatures |
|
Definition
Challenge: dry environment, both water and salts are rare and must be retained
*Possible solution: return secondarily to water~this introduces earlier problems
*Solution 1: Excrete nitrogen as NH4, urea or uric acid~balance the costs and benefits
*Solution 2:Reduce glomerulus to save on the cost of filtering (arid reptiles and anurans)
*Solution 3: Solute recovery-develop loop of Henle-MAMMALS
*Solution 4: Salt glands (seen in desert and marine animals) |
|
|
Term
| Arid reptiles have 3 options when it comes to balancing water and salts. Name and describe them. |
|
Definition
1. NH4 is cheap but toxic-would give animal a high H2O concentration
2. Urea-intermediate cost, low toxicity
3. Uric acid- high cost, not toxic, but low H2O concentration |
|
|
Term
| Sex reversal in sequential hermaphrodites |
|
Definition
-gonads can change during animal's life
-seen in 5 orders of teleosts
-asexual reproduction is possible
-no group is ever without a female |
|
|
Term
| Which animals engage in external fertilization? |
|
Definition
| Frogs, fish, some salamanders |
|
|
Term
| Which animals engage in internal fertilization? |
|
Definition
| A few frogs, some fish, no salamanders, but all other animals |
|
|
Term
| Describe genotypic sex determination using humans as an example. |
|
Definition
-Humans have heterogameteic males (XY)
-The SRY gene on Y chromosome codes for testosterone production and the Mullerian-inhibiting substance
-Male development suppresses female development (birds, mammals, snakes, some lizards) |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of environmental sex determination? |
|
Definition
Sea turtles; their sex is determined by the nest temperature in the middle of the nesting season~NO sex chromosomes
>30 deg. Celsius =Females; <25 deg Celsius =males; in between= a mixture |
|
|
Term
| Steps 1-3 of follicle development in a human female |
|
Definition
1. Of the 2 million eggs females are born with, only 400 are ovulated
2. Eggs in the primordial follicles, which are located around the outside of the ovary, multiply and form layer of granulosa cells around the egg
3.Surrounding layers of connective tissue contribute to the theca, which makes up the wall of the follicle |
|
|
Term
| Steps 4-6 of follicle development in a human female |
|
Definition
4. The follicle protects and transfers nutrients to the egg; it also has an endocrine gland that secretes female hormones
5. As the follicle develops, a follicular liquor accumulates in spaces among the granulosa cells
6. The mature, or Graafian, follicle may be 10+mm in diameter and it bulges outward on the ovary surface, secreting estrogen |
|
|
Term
| Steps 7-9 of follicle development in a human female |
|
Definition
7. The follicle pops off, starts meiosis 2, and pauses until sperm comes to activate it (this is when the ovum ovulates)
8. The corpus luteum releases progesterone in case of fertilization
9. If no sperm come to meet the egg, the cycle starts over |
|
|
Term
| The reproductive tracts of female anamniotes have less association with... and their oviducts are not... |
|
Definition
| kidney ducts; homologous to other vertebrates |
|
|
Term
| If a mammalian female gets pregnant in a place other than her oviducts, it is called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is unique about marsupial reproductive anatomy? |
|
Definition
| Females have a left and right vagina, and males have a forked penis |
|
|
Term
| The outer chorion, the chorioallantoic placenta, and the allantois all form... |
|
Definition
| The placenta of Eutherian (mammals like humans) |
|
|
Term
| Some squamates have a placenta, but it differs from humans in... |
|
Definition
| Development and attachment |
|
|
Term
| There is less of an exchange of nutrients, the yolk sac is not isolated but the allantois is, there is a short embryonic stage so the mother can abort the offspring in bad environmental conditions but these creatures are still species rich |
|
Definition
| This describes marsupial pregnancy. |
|
|
Term
| Immunological rejection is seen between... |
|
Definition
| Marsupial offspring and their mothers |
|
|
Term
| The offspring is within a shell membrane and then a placenta for the last 2/3 of their life in the pouch. Why? |
|
Definition
| This is because the marsupial mother does not recognize the DNA from the father and automatically rejects it. |
|
|
Term
| Reproductive ducts in non-mammalian males include the testes and the... |
|
Definition
| Archenephric duct, which is consistent across taxa and delivers sperm to the cloaca |
|
|
Term
| Describe the basics of mammalian male anatomy. |
|
Definition
| Testes are external during reproductive season and internal otherwise (except in humans); the sperm is stored in the epididymis; the prostate gland is responsible for raising the pH of the sperm/semen |
|
|
Term
| Nerve cells stimulate smooth muscles to make nitrous oxide, which is produced by the vascular endothelium. What does this cause to happen? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The peripheral nervous system is made up of 2 components. What are they? |
|
Definition
| The sensory input and the motor output |
|
|
Term
| What type of cells do not undergo active cell division? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The central nervous system is made up of cell bodies called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The peripheral nervous system is made up of cell bodies called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A neurotransmitter affects _______ across the membrane. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| WITHOUT a receptor, what happens when a neurotransmitter is released from a vesicle across a synaptic cleft? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Outside the cell, sodium concentrations are ____ and potassium concentrations are ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does decremental mean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the process of saltatory conduction of myelinated axons. |
|
Definition
-There is a sodium inflow at a node which generates action potential. (It is slow but nondecremental)
-Sodium diffuses along the inside of the axolemma to the next node. (This is fast and decremental)
-Excitation of voltage-regulated gates will generate the next action potential at the next node. |
|
|
Term
| What does saltation mean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| This is the name for the autoimmune disorder where axons are demylinated. The schwann cells have been attacked. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do full strength action potentials occur along an axon? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The functioning of an ACh, or acetylcholine,synapse has four steps. What are they? |
|
Definition
Step 1: An action potential arrives and depolarizes the synaptic knob.
Step 2: Extracellualr calcium enters the synaptic cleft triggering the exocytosis of ACh.
Step 3: ACh binds to receptors and depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane.
Step 4: ACh is removed by AChE, or acetylcholinesterase. |
|
|
Term
| What is the most important thing about the axon hillock? |
|
Definition
| The sum of all the stimuli it receives must be greater than -55mV to make an action potential occur. |
|
|
Term
| Name 3 common neurotransmitters and their functions. |
|
Definition
1. Norepinephrine in the brain: responsible for excitatory action potentials in postsynaptic cells
2. Dopamine in the central nervous system: prevents overstimulation of neurons (example=cocaine users) and if it is inhibited, muscle tone is negatively affected
3. Serotonin in the central nervous system: drugs like prozac inhibit the re-uptake of this |
|
|
Term
| Neuroganglia are 30-50 times more numerous than neurons and serve to... |
|
Definition
| Support and protect neurons |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 types of neuroganglia found in the central nervous system? |
|
Definition
| -Ependymal cells, Astrocytes, and Microglia |
|
|
Term
| What are Ependymal cells? |
|
Definition
| The ependymal epithelium that makes up the cerebrospinal fluid; They are the barrier between the outside world and the sensitive contents inside the cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| These cells are for structural support. They have perivascular feet that cover capillaries to prevent diffusion, thus forming a blood brain barrier. They also function in tissue repairs and ion balances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cells that digest waste products, such as other cells; sometimes called macrophages |
|
|
Term
| The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system both have neuroganglia called...that function in... |
|
Definition
| Oligodendrocytes; axon myelination and framework; they are the 'white matter' in the central nervous system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ion gradients (sodium/potassium) or electric potentials |
|
|
Term
| Describe how an action potential happens. |
|
Definition
| At rest, the concentration of potassium INSIDE the cell is high and the concentration of sodium OUTSIDE of the cell is high. Once the threshold value of -55mV is reached, polarity is reversed and there is a wave of depolarization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The movement of an action potential down an axon |
|
|
Term
| Schwann cells of the central nervous system and glial cells of the peripheral nervous system both arise from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neurotransmitters bind for about _____ and must be blocked for the process of cessation to stop. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 methods of cessation of propagation? |
|
Definition
1. Diffusion: release the neurotransmitter to the extracellular fluid and use astrocytes or enzymes to reabsorb/ return it
2. Reuptake via endocytosis and breakdown
3. Degredation or breakdown in the synaptic cleft |
|
|
Term
| A single neuron can have thousands of synapses. In fact the greater the number of synapses a neuron has... |
|
Definition
| The more processing ability the neuron has |
|
|
Term
| Name the two kinds of postsynaptic potentials. |
|
Definition
| Excitatory and inhibatory |
|
|
Term
| What happens if there is a single excitatory postsynaptic potential? |
|
Definition
| The cell is depolarized by ~0.5mV and the action potential is ready to go |
|
|
Term
| What happens is there is an inhibatory postsynaptic potential? |
|
Definition
| A larger depolarization is required for the action potential to fire. |
|
|
Term
| A nerve is a collection of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the central bundle of nerves with several branches called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Spinal nerves are derived from... |
|
Definition
| ectoderm--> neural crest--> neuroblasts --> neural tube |
|
|
Term
| What are the two pathways between the PNS and the CNS? |
|
Definition
| Somatic and Autonomic (Visceral) |
|
|
Term
| What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system? |
|
Definition
| The parasympathetic division and the sympathetic division |
|
|
Term
| The brain has both ____ and ____ matter. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| This part of the brain is divided into 4 zones. It is shaped like a butterfly. |
|
Definition
| The gray matter of the brain |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 zones of the gray matter of the brain? |
|
Definition
1. Somatic sensory
2. Visceral sensory
3. Somatic motor
4. Visceral motor |
|
|
Term
| The gray matter of the brain is made up of ______ axons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Myelinated axons are the only thing found in what part of the brain? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What region of the spinal cord allows communication between the cord and the brain? |
|
Definition
| The white matter or myelinated axons |
|
|
Term
| The white matter of the brain has fibers that run in how many directions? |
|
Definition
| Three; ascending, descending, reflexes |
|
|
Term
| Ascending fibers of white matter... |
|
Definition
| Head up to higher centers (sensory inputs) |
|
|
Term
| Descending fibers of white matter... |
|
Definition
| Head down to the spinal cord from the brain or from a higher to lower region of the cord (motor outputs) |
|
|
Term
| The hypothalamus is the... |
|
Definition
| Switchboard of the brain that sends and receives signals |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between innate and conditioned reflexes? |
|
Definition
| Innate reflexes are things we just know how to do (like moving a hand off a hot iron) and conditioned reflexes are learned reflexes (like catching a ball) |
|
|
Term
| There are 2 types of neuron arcs. What are they and what is an example of each one? |
|
Definition
| A three-neuron reflex arc (has a sensory neuron, a motor neuron, and an interneuron); A two-neuron reflex arc (has a motor neuron and a sensory neuron) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neuronal tracts that cross the midline of the body and signal intersegmental reflexes (like catching yourself with your opposite foot when you trip over something) |
|
|
Term
| Spinal nerves develop in a ___________ pattern |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| There are 4 types of plexuses that form from hypaxial differentiation. What are the 4 types? |
|
Definition
-Cervical
-Lumbrosacral
-Coccygeal
-Branchial |
|
|
Term
| This system is called the rest and digest system. It is also responsible for thoraco-lumbar flow. The pre-ganglionic fiber is farther away from the CNS. The post-ganglionic fiber is shorter than in the other system. |
|
Definition
| The parasympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| The sympatheic nervous system |
|
Definition
-Responsible for cranio-sacral flow
-Ganglia is closer to the CNS
-It is known as the flight and fight system. |
|
|
Term
| Th two systems of the autonomic nervous system differ in... |
|
Definition
| Pre- and post-ganglionic neuron length |
|
|
Term
| No post-ganaglionic fibers are... |
|
Definition
| myelinated in the parasympathetic or the sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| The parasympathetic and the sympathetic post-ganglionic fibers release different... |
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitters; parasympathetic nervous system releases ACh and the sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| The brain forms from the _______ end of the neural tube while the spinal cord develops from the ______ end of the neural tube. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The initial 3 vesicles of the brain are... |
|
Definition
1. The prosencephalon- the forebrain
2. The mesencephalon- the midbrain
3. The rhombencephalon- the hindbrain |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 divisions of the prosencephalon and what are their functions? |
|
Definition
-Telencephalon~smell, memory storage, intelligence
-Diencephalon~ vision, pineal gland (circadian rhythms), relay center, temperature and sleep |
|
|
Term
| The mesencephalon, or midbrain, functions in... |
|
Definition
| Relaying messages between the fore- and hindbrain, and processing data from eyes and ears |
|
|
Term
*The metaencephalon~made up of the cerebellum (coordination of complex muscular movements and balance) and the pons~runs fiber tracts between cerebrum and cerebellum in mammals
*Myelencehpalon- includes the medulla oblongata (reflex center for involuntary activities- respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal) |
|
Definition
| These are the components of the rhombencephalon and their functions |
|
|
Term
| The midbrain and the cervical flexures develop and cause... |
|
Definition
| the telencephalon and the diencephalon to bend toward the hind brain |
|
|
Term
| Space limitations cause the cerebral hemispheres to grow... |
|
Definition
| Posteriorly and laterally over the rest of the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| They are the parts of the brain that bulge out |
|
|
Term
| Growth of the cerebral hemispheres results in the formation of folds and creases called... |
|
Definition
| Sulci that increase the surface area of the cerebellum and allow more neurons to pack into the space |
|
|
Term
| What are the four main centers of the brain seen in mammals? |
|
Definition
*The primary motor cortex
*The primary sensory cortex
*The primary auditory cortex
*The occipital lobe (primary visual cortex) |
|
|
Term
| What are the three unifying themes of this course? |
|
Definition
1. Body sizes and shapes
2. Lifestyles
3. Ecologies |
|
|
Term
| Brain evolution does not necessarily follow... |
|
Definition
| Phylogenies of vertebrate evolution |
|
|
