Term
| The "postcranial skeleton" is another way to say... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Once the axial skeleton appears, what are three important changes? |
|
Definition
| limbs, fusion of bones, and bipedalism |
|
|
Term
| What turns into the vertebral column in later vertebrates? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two components make up the vertebral column? |
|
Definition
| Neural arches and intervertebral foramina |
|
|
Term
| Where are hemial arches found in fish? What other animals are they found in? What do they do? |
|
Definition
| The tail of fish; amphibians and non-avian reptiles; they incase blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| Muscles attach to _______ spines. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A process of the vertebral column that articulates with a comparable process on an adjacent arch is called...? |
|
Definition
| A Zygophase or an articular process |
|
|
Term
| Sizes and shapes of vertebrae are different based on what 2 characteristics? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 parts of an intervertebral disc? |
|
Definition
| an annular which is a fibrous cup-shaped ring, and a nucleus of pulposus of the disc (the spongy part) |
|
|
Term
| mesenchyme from the _________, or the ________, gathers around the notochord and spinal cord |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vertebrae are intersegmental which is fundamentally important. what do they do in relation to muscle? |
|
Definition
| They allow muscles to span joints in the body |
|
|
Term
| ____ develop along the myosepta |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The skeletagenous septa provide framework for...? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the four functions of ribs. |
|
Definition
| Strengthen the body wall, protect organs, allow muscles to attach, and lung ventilation in tetrapods |
|
|
Term
| Where do intramuscular ribs develop? |
|
Definition
| At the horizontal skeletagenous septa |
|
|
Term
| Fish ribs have ___ head, where as tetrapod ribs have ___. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| This type of rib is derived from myosepta-coelom junction and attach at the dorsal skeletagenous septa |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is it better for tetrapods to have bicipital ribs? |
|
Definition
| It provides better attachment and support |
|
|
Term
| The sternum is only found in tetrapods. What is its purpose? Where is it derived from? |
|
Definition
| It serves to allow for locomotion on land because it attaches the ribs to the pectoral girdle; derived from the ventral skeletagenous septa |
|
|
Term
| Name the 3 types of rib articulation and give an example for each case. |
|
Definition
1. No rib articulation and no fusion; salamanders
2. Fused with the pectoral girdle, no rib articulation; frogs
3. Association with pectoral girdle; rib articulation; crocodiles and humans |
|
|
Term
| Cheetahs are built for ____________, while wilder-beasts are built for ______. |
|
Definition
| short burst of speed; long trotting movements |
|
|
Term
| What is the purpose of dorsal (or mediolateral) fins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the purpose of anal fins? |
|
Definition
| help with pitch, which is moving the tail up and down in the water column |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deep attachments like a bony anchor into muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| horny, keratinized extensions in fins |
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between the 3 tail types? |
|
Definition
| heterocercal (tails are different sizes), homocercal (tails are the same size), and diphycercal (tails are staightened along the vertical axis; found in lungfish and coelcanth) |
|
|
Term
| What is the fin fold hypothesis and is it true? |
|
Definition
| It is the idea that fish once had their entire body covered in lateral fin folds and that the fins we see today are a direct result of genes being turned off everywhere the fish does not have fins. It is completely false. |
|
|
Term
| What are the evolutionary additions and transitions seen in tetrapods? |
|
Definition
| Atlas (neck), sacral vertebrae, ribs, pelvic girdle, 1st caudal vertebrae, and they walk which introduces torsion (twisting) forces |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 main challenges of swimming? How do fish overcome these challenges? |
|
Definition
| balance, thrust, drag, turning; fish accomplish this by having an increased activity level |
|
|
Term
| Describe the 3 different types of balance control. |
|
Definition
| roll( moves the tail left or right), yaw (spins the fish on a circular axis), and pitch (moves the tail up and down) |
|
|
Term
| What group had the first fins and the first cellular bone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of sharks in regards to early appendages? |
|
Definition
| They have better control of movement because they have 3 basal pterygiophores. Their girdles are broad and stout. They have a scapulocoracoid and a transverse bar |
|
|
Term
| Early bony fish had cutwaters. What are these and what do they do? |
|
Definition
| They are spines extending from the body and they break the water at the leading edge to decrease drag. |
|
|
Term
| Why do Sarcopterygians have limbs that resemble those of tetrapods? |
|
Definition
| Their limbs have a single basal element (humerous/femur) and first and second pterygiophores (shin/forearm) |
|
|
Term
| The group Eusthenopteron is considered... |
|
Definition
| a choanate fish and an osteolepimorph; osteolepimorphs are the sarcopterygian ancestor to tetrapods; Eusthenopterons have a 3 part limb with a girdle |
|
|
Term
| Crossopterygian limbs align along which axis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain how digits and radials are different. |
|
Definition
| Digits are a completely new adaptation for advanced organisms and do not relate at all to the radials seen in the fins of fish |
|
|
Term
| In regards to early tetrapod girdles, Ichthyostega has three adaptations. Name all three. |
|
Definition
| fusion of bones, increased robustness, and well-defined fossa |
|
|
Term
| Why is the range of motion of an organism important? |
|
Definition
| Torsion is created when the body is twisted so those forces must be balanced; Organisms that walk on 2 or 4 legs must also be able to balance when they run |
|
|
Term
| What is lateral undulation? |
|
Definition
| The way lizards walk; twisting the body so that the limbs on the same side move together |
|
|
Term
| Forelimbs are used for ______, while hindlimbs are used for _________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The mechanical walk can be described by which model? |
|
Definition
| The inverted pendulum model |
|
|
Term
| The mechanical run can be described by which model? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The fossa are well defined, which means what? |
|
Definition
| Both girdles can increase in size and development |
|
|
Term
| In diapsids, an ankle bone is called...? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Synapsids are said to be highly cursorial. What does this mean? |
|
Definition
| They are built for running because they have very well-defined fossae and a lot of fusion of bones |
|
|
Term
| Hands and feet are novel structures, and are important for... |
|
Definition
| Weight transfer, range of motion, and gears |
|
|
Term
| What is the purpose of gears? |
|
Definition
| To transmit torque and other forces to other structures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the efficiency of a mechanical system |
|
|
Term
| Only juvenile lizards can... |
|
Definition
| Run on water because they are light and do not experience drag |
|
|
Term
| The length of the limbs of an animal help with... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an organism whose toes and entire foot land on the ground when running and have limbs made of 3 segments. Example=opposums |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism with lighter bones, limbs directly under the body, only the toes touch the ground when running, and limbs are made of 4 segments |
|
|
Term
| Animals that have hooves sink them into the soil when running; their limbs are made up of 4 segments |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the five adaptations for flight. |
|
Definition
| Wings, pneumaticity and a lighter skeleton, a keeled sternum (where breast muscle packs and strengthens), synsacrum-no teeth-feathers, respiratory and digestive system changes |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of having a crop to chop or grind up food? |
|
Definition
| It is an example of convergence because physical demands impose constraints |
|
|
Term
| What are the main three functions of muscle? |
|
Definition
| movement, maintaining posture, and generating heat |
|
|
Term
| Muscles generating heat allows for... |
|
Definition
| endothermy to be maintained |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The plasma membrane of the muscle cell |
|
|
Term
| Due to the contractability of muscle... |
|
Definition
| muscles can only ACTIVELY shorten |
|
|
Term
| All of these prefixes refer to muscle in some way. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized protein filaments found in muscle cells that are responsible for muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| All muscle types come from this... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-muscles that attach to and cover bones for support
-has the longest muscle cells (cells are multinucleate)
-is striated and voluntarily contracted
-striated to increase force because there is increased interaction of the myofilaments
-it contracts rapidly and forcefully, but may tire easily |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-only found in the walls of the heart
-striated and involuntarily controlled
-contractions are forceful and rapid |
|
|
Term
| Cardiac muscle tissue consists of branching cells that fit together at junctions called...;the branching allows for... |
|
Definition
| Intercolated disks; increased surface area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-consists of cells found in the cytoplasm
-non-striated and contractions are involuntary and slow
-has uninucleated cells
-lines the digestive tract of humans |
|
|
Term
| Skeletal muscle is the type of muscle we break down to individual components. True or false? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A whole muscle consists of how many muscle cells/fibers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of tissue wrappings? |
|
Definition
| Epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the surface of the whole muscle, interconnected with tendons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A collection of many individual fibers |
|
|
Term
| Each skeletal muscle fiber requires... |
|
Definition
| Blood vessels and nerve fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an extension of connective tissue within a muscle into the perimysium |
|
|
Term
| Myofibrils inside a muscle cell contain... |
|
Definition
| actin and myosin; multiple sarcomeres in a row make up one myofibril |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the contractile unit of a myofibril; the functional unit of muscles |
|
|
Term
| What is a sarcomere composed of? |
|
Definition
-actin and myosin
-striated bands
-The I-band has only actin and is divided by the Z-line
-A Z-line to the next Z-line= a sarcomere; A Z-line is where actin attaches
-The A-band is made up of myosin and actin overlap
-The H-zone is the center of the sarcomere where there is only myosin |
|
|
Term
| When actin and myosin slide past each other,... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Filaments that generate muscle contraction are called... |
|
Definition
| Myofilaments or sarcomeres |
|
|
Term
| Each muscle is served by a... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neuromuscular junctions occur at... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the definition of a motor unit? |
|
Definition
| A single motor neuron(axon)and all the muscle fibers it supplies |
|
|
Term
| This is where the nerve cell touches the muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The motor end plate sticks to the... |
|
Definition
| plasma membrane of a cell |
|
|
Term
| What does the sarcoplasmic reticulum do? |
|
Definition
| Stores and releases Ca++ (Ca++ is calcium) to expose the binding site for actin and myosin |
|
|
Term
| The flow of ions (electrons) across the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum creates... |
|
Definition
| An electricty-like current |
|
|
Term
| Describe what happens when a stimulus is received from a nerve. |
|
Definition
1. The stimulus enters the T-tubule system and goes from the plasma membrane into the interior of the cell, telling it to release more Ca++.
2. Ca++ is released throughout the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
3. Ca++ allows the nerves to activate
4. Troponin is blocking the Ca++ binding site, so tropomyosin twists the fiber
5. Troponin moves to expose the binding site |
|
|
Term
| Why is the flow of ions (electrons) across the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum considered a current? |
|
Definition
| Electrons also flow out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm, completing the circuit |
|
|
Term
| When a muscle is relaxed, the actin and mysoin filaments... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Actin and myosin form cross-bridges via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses the ATP and new ATP is created to re-cock the head of the myosin back into position for the next power stroke |
|
|
Term
| The more fibers that are stimulated produces... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is recruitment in relation to muscles? |
|
Definition
| The number of motor units called into service |
|
|
Term
| When someone trains their muscles, what really happens? |
|
Definition
| The diameter of their muscle fibers increase |
|
|
Term
| What is the optimal resting length for a sarcomere? Hint: it exists at 100% tension |
|
Definition
| The length at which they can produce maximum force; this exists slightly over 100% |
|
|
Term
| The optimal sarcomere operating length exists between... |
|
Definition
| 80 and 120% of the resting sarcomere length |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-usually no movement
-One end plate per fiber
-Includes skeletal and cardiac muscles
-an all or none response in each fiber |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of tonic muscles? |
|
Definition
-long, forceful (but slow) contractions
-many motor ends per fiber
-an example is smooth muscle (like the lining of the digestive tract of humans) |
|
|
Term
| What is the process of summation, also called incomplete tetanus? |
|
Definition
| After one twitch occurs and the muscle contraction starts to decay (relaxation), another stimulus is received from the nerves, more Ca++ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and another twitch occurs immediately |
|
|
Term
| Describe the concept of tetanus muscle stimulation |
|
Definition
| Various stimuli are received, the free Ca++ in the cytoplasm holds the twitch for a loner duration so it does not decay (die out) completely and muscle contraction lasts longer |
|
|
Term
| If a muscle has a high cross-sectional area... |
|
Definition
-more cross-sectional bridges are formed
-more myofibrils are in parallel
-a greater force is produced |
|
|
Term
| The elastic components of a muscle in the endomysium are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The elastic components of a muscle in the perimysium and the epimysium are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Long muscle has a high number of... |
|
Definition
| sarcomeres in series, thus it contracts faster (strap and fusiform muscles are examples) |
|
|
Term
| Contractile movement of the whole muscle is influenced by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| XSA=cross sectional area which determines... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| High force is generated by... |
|
Definition
several sarcomeres in parallel; more power is produced in muscles, but contraction is slower
-examples of these muscles are unipennate and bipennate muscles
-these are very strong muscles with short fibers |
|
|
Term
| Force and velocity have... |
|
Definition
| an inverse relationship; Power=Force*Velocity |
|
|
Term
| Muscles are divided into groups based on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Somatic muscles are the muscles of the outer tube of the body that primarily arise from... |
|
Definition
| the segmental myotomes of the somites; some flank muscles are also derived from the somatic layer of the lateral plate mesoderm |
|
|
Term
| Visceral muscles make up the inner tube of the body and come from the... |
|
Definition
| splanchnic layer of the lateral plate mesoderm |
|
|
Term
| How have axial skeleton muscles changed over the course of evolution? |
|
Definition
-increased complexity
-increased regionalization
-increased specialization
-homologies are still evident! |
|
|
Term
| How have appendicular skeleton muscles changed over the course of evolution? |
|
Definition
-joint motion
-muscle size/orientation
-GEARING
-complexity and specialization: locomotion, posture, swing versus stance phases |
|
|
Term
| Recording electric signals to figure out when muscles are active is called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In tadpoles, what muscles are responsible for feeding behaviors? |
|
Definition
-The orbitohyoideus opens the mouth and moves it forward
-The hyoangularis moves the mouthparts backward |
|
|
Term
| The digestive system is responsible for... |
|
Definition
| ingestion and digestion of food |
|
|
Term
| Name three things that animals get from eating. |
|
Definition
| fuel (energy), raw materials, and nutrients |
|
|
Term
| What are the four main types of feeding and what is an example of an animal that does each one? |
|
Definition
-suction feeding (aquatic animals)
-RAM feeding (sharks and some fish)
-Jaw prehension (legless lizards)
-Tongue propulsion (salamanders) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 main stages of food processing (include details). |
|
Definition
1. ingestion-taking food into the mouth
2. digestion-breaking food down into molecules for absorption; this is accomplished by many enzymes throughout the gut
3. absorption-occurs in the small intestine and a little in the large intestine
4. elimination- sending waste out the far end of the digestive canal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-the lining of the gut and associated structures
-it includes the glands and respiratory structures
-food goes from the foregut (stomach) to the hindgut (colon) |
|
|
Term
| The mouth is the interface between the... |
|
Definition
| digestive tract and the environment |
|
|
Term
| A tooth is an association between which two embryonic tissues? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| teeth are the key anatomical structure involved in... |
|
Definition
| Mastification (which means chewing) |
|
|
Term
| True teeth evolved along with jaws in... |
|
Definition
| Gnathostomes as a modification of bony scales |
|
|
Term
| What animals have acrodont teeth? |
|
Definition
| bony fish; the teeth are loosely held to the jaw and sit on top of it |
|
|
Term
| What animals have pleurodont teeth? |
|
Definition
| lizards; the teeth are loosely held on one side of the jaw |
|
|
Term
| What animals have thecodont teeth? |
|
Definition
| mammals; the teeth sit inside a socket of the jaw |
|
|
Term
| In homodonts like amphibians, most fish, rays, and reptiles... |
|
Definition
| all teeth are the same and they are fused like plates |
|
|
Term
| Heterodonts like mammals... |
|
Definition
| have teeth of different sizes and types with different functions; incisors (nipping), canines (ripping), premolars (shearing), molars (crushing) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| peaks on teeth that are used for crushing food |
|
|
Term
| Many snakes have specialized modified teeth that are hollowed or grooved for the passage of venom from modified salivary glands. These teeth are called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Elephants and narwhals have modified incisors called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Rodent incisors are enlarged and flattened for... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a primary difference of feeding on land versus feeding in water? |
|
Definition
| the mechanism by which food is transported |
|
|
Term
| Aquatic animals rely on water currents to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Terrestrial animals use... |
|
Definition
| the tongue to transport food in the mouth |
|
|
Term
| Besides moving food, what are the other 5 functions of the tongue? |
|
Definition
| thermoregulation, taste, olfaction, capture, and vocalization |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 functions of oral (salivary) glands? |
|
Definition
| anticoagulants, digestion (proteins, carbs, starches), lubrication, venom glands |
|
|
Term
| Describe how cranial kinesis and the fang erection system of rattlesnakes works |
|
Definition
| joints in the skull are mobile, the quadrate bone is oriented posteriorly to allow for a larger gape, and they move pterygoid bones inside the mouth back and forth to kill the prey |
|
|
Term
| Evolution of feeding mechanisms in fish |
|
Definition
-intraoral prey transport by water currents
-mouth opening caused by both lower jaw depression and elevation |
|
|
Term
| Evolution of feeding mechanisms in tetrapods |
|
Definition
| -tongue-based intraoral transport |
|
|
Term
| Evolution of feeding mechanisms in amniotes |
|
Definition
-short slow-open phase just prior to fast opening
-inertail feeding is present (using inertia of food to get it deeper in the mouth)
-gape increases mainly by lower jaw depression |
|
|
Term
| Describe the pharyngeal anatomy of jawed fishes. |
|
Definition
| There are 6 pharyngeal pouches that extend laterally and open to the outside. The pharynx is large due to its role in respiration and food capture. They use gill rakers on the inside of the pharynx to move food down. |
|
|
Term
| In which classification of animals is the pharynx a short connecting segment between the oral cavity and the esophagus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True or false: Lungs develop off of the posterior end of the pharynx. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Mammals only have 4 pharyngeal pouches, and all are modified in the adult. Describe all four. |
|
Definition
*Pouch 1=middle/inner ear cavity
*Pouch 2=thyroid, tonsils
*Pouch 3=part of the parathymoid
*Pouch 4=part of the parathymoid and the thymus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction that move food through the gut |
|
|
Term
| Since the potential exists for abrasion by food items, the esophagus is... |
|
Definition
| lined with a layer of epithelial tissue and has lubricated mucous secreting cells |
|
|
Term
| Name the four animals that lack a stomach. |
|
Definition
| Lampreys, tunicates, amphioxus, and hagfish |
|
|
Term
| The stomach of an adult human can hold about... |
|
Definition
| 2 liters of food and liquid |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of smooth muscles in the stomach wall? |
|
Definition
| They churn food and mix it with HCl, which has a pH of 2 |
|
|
Term
| Name 6 functions of the stomach. |
|
Definition
| Storage, chemical breakdown of food, denature proteins using pepsin, regulate flow, degrade the cell matrix, and kill bacteria |
|
|
Term
| What unique modification do crocodiles and birds have in regards to a stomach? |
|
Definition
| They have thick, muscular gizzards to grind up their food |
|
|
Term
| Why do cows and other mammal herbivores have large, multi-chambered stomachs? |
|
Definition
| to digest tough, nutrient-poor plant material |
|
|
Term
| Name the four chambers of a cow stomach. |
|
Definition
| Rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum |
|
|
Term
| Which chamber of the cow stomach is most comparable to the typical mammalian stomach? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The rumen and reticulum of a cow stomach share an open connection and can hold up to 300+ liters of plant material. What happens here? |
|
Definition
| Plant food and saliva mix with bacterial and protozoan colonies that synthesize cellulose. |
|
|
Term
| The breakdown of cellulose in a cow stomach produces... |
|
Definition
| CO2, methane and organic acids; acids are buffered by the higher pH of the saliva; gases are belched out with the regurgitated food (cud) from the reticulum |
|
|
Term
| The cud (food) from a cow stomach is... |
|
Definition
| re-chewed and re-swallowed |
|
|
Term
| As much as 70% of the cow's caloric intake occurs... |
|
Definition
| via absorption in the reticulorumen |
|
|
Term
| Broken down food particles in a cow's stomach can pass through the... |
|
Definition
| reticulum to the omasum where more absorption occurs |
|
|
Term
| Where does protein digestion occur in a cow stomach? |
|
Definition
| In the gastric glands in the walls of the abomasum |
|
|
Term
| This is the primary organ of digestion and absorption |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which division of the small intestine is the duodenum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens in the duodenum? |
|
Definition
| Slurry from the stomach mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and intestinal wall |
|
|
Term
| The liver produces bile that is stored in the gallbladder. What is the importance of bile? |
|
Definition
-Bile aids in digestion and absorption of fat and helps raise the pH of food coming from the stomach
-Bile contains reddish-brown pigments that are by-products of the liver destroying red blood cells |
|
|
Term
| The pancreas produces lots of digestive enzymes. Name 5 enzymes and what they do. |
|
Definition
1. Pancreatic amylases- digest complex carbs (starch and glycogen) in disaccharides
2. Maltase breaks maltose into 2 glucose molcules
3. Trypsin- breaks polypeptides into smaller chains (the pancreas secretes this in an inactive form and it must be activated first)
4. Nucleases- break down DNA and RNA into nucleotides
5. Lipase- finishes the breakdown of fat into glycerol and fatty acids |
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Term
| The second and third divisions of the small intestine are... |
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Definition
| the jejunum and the ileum |
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|
Term
| The jejunum and the ileum function in... |
|
Definition
| the absorption of nutrients and water |
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|
Term
| The jejunum and the ileum consist of... |
|
Definition
| several layers of epithelial tissue and muscle |
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Term
| The second and third divisions of the small intestine have a huge surface area for... |
|
Definition
| absorption; folds have secondary projections called villi |
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Term
| Each cell on the villi has... |
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Definition
| smaller projections called microvilli, which are the principle sites for absorption |
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Term
| Villi contain networks of blood vessels separated from the intestinal contents by... |
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Definition
| two layers of cells: the epithelial lining and the capillary lining |
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Term
| Nutrients either diffuse or are transported from the intestinal lumen into... |
|
Definition
| the bloodstream and then to the liver |
|
|
Term
| How much of the food eaten in a meal will be absorbed? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| The large intestine, or colon, receives... |
|
Definition
| undigestable food like plant cell walls-all of this is feces |
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Term
| Feces is passed out through the... |
|
Definition
| rectum and anus (or the cloaca of monotremes and most non-mammalian vertebrates) |
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|
Term
| The major function of the large intestine is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The colon contains bacteria (like E.coli), which... |
|
Definition
-produce gases like methane as a by product
-live off of undigested food
-may produce beneficial vitamins that are absorbed by the blood |
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|
Term
| Lampreys have a relatively straight intestine except for... |
|
Definition
| a single longitudinal/ spiral internal fold |
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|
Term
| Sharks have a straight, valvular intestine with... |
|
Definition
| an extensive spiral valve to slow the rate of food passage and increase absorptive surface area |
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Term
| Bony fish like lungfish, bowfins, and teleost lose the spiral valve and have a long and coiled intestine; they also have... |
|
Definition
| a caeca in the stomach for increased absorption |
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Term
|
Definition
| A blind sac that stores or holds food; a hindgut fermenter is less effecient than a foregut |
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|
Term
| What is different about the small and large intestine of tetrapods? |
|
Definition
| They have a distinct regionalization and specialization |
|
|
Term
| What structure of a human is equivalent to a caecum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why do herbivores have longer intestines? |
|
Definition
| To increase digestive time |
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|
Term
| Why are enlarged caecae often present in herbivores? |
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Definition
| to house bacterial colonies that aid in digestion of plant material |
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|
Term
| This develops as an outpocketing of the digestive tube just caudal to the stomach |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the largest organ in the body cavity? |
|
Definition
| the liver is the largest one |
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|
Term
| Nutrients are brought to the liver from the intestine in the... |
|
Definition
| blood via the hepatic portal vein |
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|
Term
| The liver functions in maintaining what? |
|
Definition
| Blood glucose levels; it can convert extra glucose into glycogen or break glycogen down into glucose |
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|
Term
| Name two functions (other than glucose levels) of the liver. |
|
Definition
-detoxification
-destruction of hemoglobin from old red blood cells |
|
|
Term
| What does the pancreas develop from? |
|
Definition
| 1 or more primordia derived from the liver or intestinal wall |
|
|
Term
| The pancreas produces these two things that are used in glucose regulation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What exactly does insulin do? |
|
Definition
| It stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells and promotes storage of excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles when blood sugar rises above 0.1% |
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|
Term
| What stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose when blood sugar decreases below 0.1% and blood sugar then rises back to normal levels? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Is ventilation positive or negative pressure? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe ventilation in sharks. |
|
Definition
| -inhalation also called suction, is the dropping of the lower jaw; it is negative pressure |
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|
Term
| What is the difference between osteostracans and teleost in relation to pouches and surface area for respiration. |
|
Definition
| Osteostracans have a higher surface area and 10 pouches, but their system is not efficient because water must enter and exit through the same pathway. Teleosts have gills with openings on each side to allow water to flow more smoothly even though they have only 6 pouches. |
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|
Term
| Lungs in fish show a possible primitive state for all... |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Lungs either have a direct or indirect connection with the esophagus. What helps balance pressure and the gradient? |
|
Definition
| Rete mirable, which is a countercurrent exchanger or multiplier |
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|
Term
| In the gas gland of a fish, what happens if the CO2 concentration and the lactic acid concentration both increase? |
|
Definition
| The pH of the blood would decrease |
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|
Term
| Physocistous is seen in bony fish like perch. What does it mean? |
|
Definition
| There is no connection between the trachea and the swim bladder of the fish |
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|
Term
| Respiration involves both the circulatory and the respiratory systems. Define respiration. |
|
Definition
| The uptake of O2 from the environment and discharge of CO2 |
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|
Term
| Exchange occurs entirely through diffusion in respiration. What affects the rate of diffusion? |
|
Definition
| Surface area and distance; as surface area goes up so does the rate of diffusion. Distance and rate of diffusion are inversely related. |
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|
Term
| To maximize gas exchange, respiratory surfaces should be... |
|
Definition
| thin and have large surface areas |
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|
Term
| Name two major constraints of living in water in regards to oxygen uptake. |
|
Definition
1. Amount of O2 dissolved in water is less than the amount of O2 dissolved in air (air has 3.5 times more O2)
2. Water is much more dense and viscous, so more energy is required to transport water |
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Term
| These two features of the gills of an aquatic animal help increase surface area for the uptake of O2 from water |
|
Definition
| Primary lamellae and secondary lamellae |
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|
Term
What is countercurrent flow? Hint: It maintains a steep gradient for diffusion
SEE GRAPH IN NOTES (pg. 63) |
|
Definition
| Water goes toward the gill arch while blood flows away from the gill arch and to the body. They pass each other and water loses O2 as blood gains it. |
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|
Term
| In concurrent flow, as the as the direction of water flow and blood flow along a gill lamellae approach each other... |
|
Definition
| The rate of O2 diffusion decreases |
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