Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy Exam 3 flashcards
Study Study Study! Ch 8-10; 16-18
214
Biology
Undergraduate 3
03/18/2013

Additional Biology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
The "postcranial skeleton" is another way to say...
Definition
The axial skeleton
Term
Once the axial skeleton appears, what are three important changes?
Definition
limbs, fusion of bones, and bipedalism
Term
What turns into the vertebral column in later vertebrates?
Definition
The notochord
Term
What two components make up the vertebral column?
Definition
Neural arches and intervertebral foramina
Term
Where are hemial arches found in fish? What other animals are they found in? What do they do?
Definition
The tail of fish; amphibians and non-avian reptiles; they incase blood vessels
Term
Muscles attach to _______ spines.
Definition
Neural
Term
A process of the vertebral column that articulates with a comparable process on an adjacent arch is called...?
Definition
A Zygophase or an articular process
Term
Sizes and shapes of vertebrae are different based on what 2 characteristics?
Definition
locomotion and habitat
Term
What are the 2 parts of an intervertebral disc?
Definition
an annular which is a fibrous cup-shaped ring, and a nucleus of pulposus of the disc (the spongy part)
Term
mesenchyme from the _________, or the ________, gathers around the notochord and spinal cord
Definition
Sclerotome, somites
Term
Vertebrae are intersegmental which is fundamentally important. what do they do in relation to muscle?
Definition
They allow muscles to span joints in the body
Term
____ develop along the myosepta
Definition
Ribs
Term
The skeletagenous septa provide framework for...?
Definition
vertebrae formation
Term
Name the four functions of ribs.
Definition
Strengthen the body wall, protect organs, allow muscles to attach, and lung ventilation in tetrapods
Term
Where do intramuscular ribs develop?
Definition
At the horizontal skeletagenous septa
Term
Fish ribs have ___ head, where as tetrapod ribs have ___.
Definition
One; two
Term
This type of rib is derived from myosepta-coelom junction and attach at the dorsal skeletagenous septa
Definition
Subperitoneal ribs
Term
Why is it better for tetrapods to have bicipital ribs?
Definition
It provides better attachment and support
Term
The sternum is only found in tetrapods. What is its purpose? Where is it derived from?
Definition
It serves to allow for locomotion on land because it attaches the ribs to the pectoral girdle; derived from the ventral skeletagenous septa
Term
Name the 3 types of rib articulation and give an example for each case.
Definition
1. No rib articulation and no fusion; salamanders
2. Fused with the pectoral girdle, no rib articulation; frogs
3. Association with pectoral girdle; rib articulation; crocodiles and humans
Term
Cheetahs are built for ____________, while wilder-beasts are built for ______.
Definition
short burst of speed; long trotting movements
Term
What is the purpose of dorsal (or mediolateral) fins?
Definition
stabilization
Term
What is the purpose of anal fins?
Definition
help with pitch, which is moving the tail up and down in the water column
Term
What are pterygiophores?
Definition
deep attachments like a bony anchor into muscle
Term
What is ceratotrichia?
Definition
horny, keratinized extensions in fins
Term
What are the differences between the 3 tail types?
Definition
heterocercal (tails are different sizes), homocercal (tails are the same size), and diphycercal (tails are staightened along the vertical axis; found in lungfish and coelcanth)
Term
What is the fin fold hypothesis and is it true?
Definition
It is the idea that fish once had their entire body covered in lateral fin folds and that the fins we see today are a direct result of genes being turned off everywhere the fish does not have fins. It is completely false.
Term
What are the evolutionary additions and transitions seen in tetrapods?
Definition
Atlas (neck), sacral vertebrae, ribs, pelvic girdle, 1st caudal vertebrae, and they walk which introduces torsion (twisting) forces
Term
What are the 4 main challenges of swimming? How do fish overcome these challenges?
Definition
balance, thrust, drag, turning; fish accomplish this by having an increased activity level
Term
Describe the 3 different types of balance control.
Definition
roll( moves the tail left or right), yaw (spins the fish on a circular axis), and pitch (moves the tail up and down)
Term
What group had the first fins and the first cellular bone?
Definition
Osteostraceans
Term
What are the characteristics of sharks in regards to early appendages?
Definition
They have better control of movement because they have 3 basal pterygiophores. Their girdles are broad and stout. They have a scapulocoracoid and a transverse bar
Term
Early bony fish had cutwaters. What are these and what do they do?
Definition
They are spines extending from the body and they break the water at the leading edge to decrease drag.
Term
Why do Sarcopterygians have limbs that resemble those of tetrapods?
Definition
Their limbs have a single basal element (humerous/femur) and first and second pterygiophores (shin/forearm)
Term
The group Eusthenopteron is considered...
Definition
a choanate fish and an osteolepimorph; osteolepimorphs are the sarcopterygian ancestor to tetrapods; Eusthenopterons have a 3 part limb with a girdle
Term
Crossopterygian limbs align along which axis?
Definition
The posterior axis
Term
Explain how digits and radials are different.
Definition
Digits are a completely new adaptation for advanced organisms and do not relate at all to the radials seen in the fins of fish
Term
In regards to early tetrapod girdles, Ichthyostega has three adaptations. Name all three.
Definition
fusion of bones, increased robustness, and well-defined fossa
Term
Why is the range of motion of an organism important?
Definition
Torsion is created when the body is twisted so those forces must be balanced; Organisms that walk on 2 or 4 legs must also be able to balance when they run
Term
What is lateral undulation?
Definition
The way lizards walk; twisting the body so that the limbs on the same side move together
Term
Forelimbs are used for ______, while hindlimbs are used for _________.
Definition
stability; propelling
Term
The mechanical walk can be described by which model?
Definition
The inverted pendulum model
Term
The mechanical run can be described by which model?
Definition
The spring mass model
Term
The fossa are well defined, which means what?
Definition
Both girdles can increase in size and development
Term
In diapsids, an ankle bone is called...?
Definition
An astragalus
Term
Synapsids are said to be highly cursorial. What does this mean?
Definition
They are built for running because they have very well-defined fossae and a lot of fusion of bones
Term
Hands and feet are novel structures, and are important for...
Definition
Weight transfer, range of motion, and gears
Term
What is the purpose of gears?
Definition
To transmit torque and other forces to other structures
Term
Gears change...
Definition
the efficiency of a mechanical system
Term
Only juvenile lizards can...
Definition
Run on water because they are light and do not experience drag
Term
The length of the limbs of an animal help with...
Definition
flexibility
Term
A plantigrade is...
Definition
an organism whose toes and entire foot land on the ground when running and have limbs made of 3 segments. Example=opposums
Term
A digitigrade is...
Definition
An organism with lighter bones, limbs directly under the body, only the toes touch the ground when running, and limbs are made of 4 segments
Term
Animals that have hooves sink them into the soil when running; their limbs are made up of 4 segments
Definition
An unguligrade
Term
Name the five adaptations for flight.
Definition
Wings, pneumaticity and a lighter skeleton, a keeled sternum (where breast muscle packs and strengthens), synsacrum-no teeth-feathers, respiratory and digestive system changes
Term
What is the importance of having a crop to chop or grind up food?
Definition
It is an example of convergence because physical demands impose constraints
Term
What are the main three functions of muscle?
Definition
movement, maintaining posture, and generating heat
Term
Muscles generating heat allows for...
Definition
endothermy to be maintained
Term
What is the sarcolemma?
Definition
The plasma membrane of the muscle cell
Term
Due to the contractability of muscle...
Definition
muscles can only ACTIVELY shorten
Term
All of these prefixes refer to muscle in some way.
Definition
Myo- Sarco- Mys-
Term
What are myofilaments?
Definition
specialized protein filaments found in muscle cells that are responsible for muscle contraction
Term
A myocyte is...
Definition
an adult muscle cell
Term
All muscle types come from this...
Definition
Mesenchyme
Term
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Definition
-muscles that attach to and cover bones for support
-has the longest muscle cells (cells are multinucleate)
-is striated and voluntarily contracted
-striated to increase force because there is increased interaction of the myofilaments
-it contracts rapidly and forcefully, but may tire easily
Term
Cardiac muscle tissue
Definition
-only found in the walls of the heart
-striated and involuntarily controlled
-contractions are forceful and rapid
Term
Cardiac muscle tissue consists of branching cells that fit together at junctions called...;the branching allows for...
Definition
Intercolated disks; increased surface area
Term
Smooth muscle tissue
Definition
-consists of cells found in the cytoplasm
-non-striated and contractions are involuntary and slow
-has uninucleated cells
-lines the digestive tract of humans
Term
Skeletal muscle is the type of muscle we break down to individual components. True or false?
Definition
TRUE
Term
A whole muscle consists of how many muscle cells/fibers?
Definition
100s to 1,000s
Term
What are the three types of tissue wrappings?
Definition
Epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium
Term
Epimysium covers...
Definition
the surface of the whole muscle, interconnected with tendons
Term
Perimysium covers...
Definition
and separates fascicles
Term
Endomysium surrounds...
Definition
muscle cells
Term
What is a fascicle?
Definition
A collection of many individual fibers
Term
Each skeletal muscle fiber requires...
Definition
Blood vessels and nerve fibers
Term
Tendons consist of...
Definition
an extension of connective tissue within a muscle into the perimysium
Term
Myofibrils inside a muscle cell contain...
Definition
actin and myosin; multiple sarcomeres in a row make up one myofibril
Term
What is a sarcomere?
Definition
the contractile unit of a myofibril; the functional unit of muscles
Term
What is a sarcomere composed of?
Definition
-actin and myosin
-striated bands
-The I-band has only actin and is divided by the Z-line
-A Z-line to the next Z-line= a sarcomere; A Z-line is where actin attaches
-The A-band is made up of myosin and actin overlap
-The H-zone is the center of the sarcomere where there is only myosin
Term
When actin and myosin slide past each other,...
Definition
the muscle shortens
Term
Filaments that generate muscle contraction are called...
Definition
Myofilaments or sarcomeres
Term
Each muscle is served by a...
Definition
motor unit
Term
Neuromuscular junctions occur at...
Definition
individual fibers
Term
What is the definition of a motor unit?
Definition
A single motor neuron(axon)and all the muscle fibers it supplies
Term
This is where the nerve cell touches the muscle
Definition
The motor end plate
Term
The motor end plate sticks to the...
Definition
plasma membrane of a cell
Term
What does the sarcoplasmic reticulum do?
Definition
Stores and releases Ca++ (Ca++ is calcium) to expose the binding site for actin and myosin
Term
The flow of ions (electrons) across the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum creates...
Definition
An electricty-like current
Term
Describe what happens when a stimulus is received from a nerve.
Definition
1. The stimulus enters the T-tubule system and goes from the plasma membrane into the interior of the cell, telling it to release more Ca++.
2. Ca++ is released throughout the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
3. Ca++ allows the nerves to activate
4. Troponin is blocking the Ca++ binding site, so tropomyosin twists the fiber
5. Troponin moves to expose the binding site
Term
Why is the flow of ions (electrons) across the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum considered a current?
Definition
Electrons also flow out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm, completing the circuit
Term
When a muscle is relaxed, the actin and mysoin filaments...
Definition
Only slightly overlap
Term
Actin and myosin form cross-bridges via...
Definition
ATP binding
Term
A power stroke...
Definition
uses the ATP and new ATP is created to re-cock the head of the myosin back into position for the next power stroke
Term
The more fibers that are stimulated produces...
Definition
greater strength
Term
What is recruitment in relation to muscles?
Definition
The number of motor units called into service
Term
When someone trains their muscles, what really happens?
Definition
The diameter of their muscle fibers increase
Term
What is the optimal resting length for a sarcomere? Hint: it exists at 100% tension
Definition
The length at which they can produce maximum force; this exists slightly over 100%
Term
The optimal sarcomere operating length exists between...
Definition
80 and 120% of the resting sarcomere length
Term
Describe twitch muscles.
Definition
-usually no movement
-One end plate per fiber
-Includes skeletal and cardiac muscles
-an all or none response in each fiber
Term
What are the characteristics of tonic muscles?
Definition
-long, forceful (but slow) contractions
-many motor ends per fiber
-an example is smooth muscle (like the lining of the digestive tract of humans)
Term
What is the process of summation, also called incomplete tetanus?
Definition
After one twitch occurs and the muscle contraction starts to decay (relaxation), another stimulus is received from the nerves, more Ca++ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and another twitch occurs immediately
Term
Describe the concept of tetanus muscle stimulation
Definition
Various stimuli are received, the free Ca++ in the cytoplasm holds the twitch for a loner duration so it does not decay (die out) completely and muscle contraction lasts longer
Term
If a muscle has a high cross-sectional area...
Definition
-more cross-sectional bridges are formed
-more myofibrils are in parallel
-a greater force is produced
Term
The elastic components of a muscle in the endomysium are...
Definition
in series
Term
The elastic components of a muscle in the perimysium and the epimysium are...
Definition
in parallel
Term
Muscles store...
Definition
ENERGY!
Term
Long muscle has a high number of...
Definition
sarcomeres in series, thus it contracts faster (strap and fusiform muscles are examples)
Term
Contractile movement of the whole muscle is influenced by...
Definition
lever mechanics
Term
XSA=cross sectional area which determines...
Definition
muscle strength
Term
High force is generated by...
Definition
several sarcomeres in parallel; more power is produced in muscles, but contraction is slower
-examples of these muscles are unipennate and bipennate muscles
-these are very strong muscles with short fibers
Term
Force and velocity have...
Definition
an inverse relationship; Power=Force*Velocity
Term
Muscles are divided into groups based on...
Definition
Their embryonic origin
Term
Somatic muscles are the muscles of the outer tube of the body that primarily arise from...
Definition
the segmental myotomes of the somites; some flank muscles are also derived from the somatic layer of the lateral plate mesoderm
Term
Visceral muscles make up the inner tube of the body and come from the...
Definition
splanchnic layer of the lateral plate mesoderm
Term
How have axial skeleton muscles changed over the course of evolution?
Definition
-increased complexity
-increased regionalization
-increased specialization
-homologies are still evident!
Term
How have appendicular skeleton muscles changed over the course of evolution?
Definition
-joint motion
-muscle size/orientation
-GEARING
-complexity and specialization: locomotion, posture, swing versus stance phases
Term
Recording electric signals to figure out when muscles are active is called...
Definition
Electromyography
Term
In tadpoles, what muscles are responsible for feeding behaviors?
Definition
-The orbitohyoideus opens the mouth and moves it forward
-The hyoangularis moves the mouthparts backward
Term
The digestive system is responsible for...
Definition
ingestion and digestion of food
Term
Name three things that animals get from eating.
Definition
fuel (energy), raw materials, and nutrients
Term
What are the four main types of feeding and what is an example of an animal that does each one?
Definition
-suction feeding (aquatic animals)
-RAM feeding (sharks and some fish)
-Jaw prehension (legless lizards)
-Tongue propulsion (salamanders)
Term
What are the 4 main stages of food processing (include details).
Definition
1. ingestion-taking food into the mouth
2. digestion-breaking food down into molecules for absorption; this is accomplished by many enzymes throughout the gut
3. absorption-occurs in the small intestine and a little in the large intestine
4. elimination- sending waste out the far end of the digestive canal
Term
What is the archenteron?
Definition
-the lining of the gut and associated structures
-it includes the glands and respiratory structures
-food goes from the foregut (stomach) to the hindgut (colon)
Term
The mouth is the interface between the...
Definition
digestive tract and the environment
Term
A tooth is an association between which two embryonic tissues?
Definition
ectoderm and mesoderm
Term
teeth are the key anatomical structure involved in...
Definition
Mastification (which means chewing)
Term
True teeth evolved along with jaws in...
Definition
Gnathostomes as a modification of bony scales
Term
What animals have acrodont teeth?
Definition
bony fish; the teeth are loosely held to the jaw and sit on top of it
Term
What animals have pleurodont teeth?
Definition
lizards; the teeth are loosely held on one side of the jaw
Term
What animals have thecodont teeth?
Definition
mammals; the teeth sit inside a socket of the jaw
Term
In homodonts like amphibians, most fish, rays, and reptiles...
Definition
all teeth are the same and they are fused like plates
Term
Heterodonts like mammals...
Definition
have teeth of different sizes and types with different functions; incisors (nipping), canines (ripping), premolars (shearing), molars (crushing)
Term
Carnassials are the...
Definition
peaks on teeth that are used for crushing food
Term
Many snakes have specialized modified teeth that are hollowed or grooved for the passage of venom from modified salivary glands. These teeth are called...
Definition
Fangs
Term
Elephants and narwhals have modified incisors called...
Definition
Tusks
Term
Rodent incisors are enlarged and flattened for...
Definition
gnawing on plant food
Term
What is a primary difference of feeding on land versus feeding in water?
Definition
the mechanism by which food is transported
Term
Aquatic animals rely on water currents to...
Definition
transport their food
Term
Terrestrial animals use...
Definition
the tongue to transport food in the mouth
Term
Besides moving food, what are the other 5 functions of the tongue?
Definition
thermoregulation, taste, olfaction, capture, and vocalization
Term
What are the 4 functions of oral (salivary) glands?
Definition
anticoagulants, digestion (proteins, carbs, starches), lubrication, venom glands
Term
Describe how cranial kinesis and the fang erection system of rattlesnakes works
Definition
joints in the skull are mobile, the quadrate bone is oriented posteriorly to allow for a larger gape, and they move pterygoid bones inside the mouth back and forth to kill the prey
Term
Evolution of feeding mechanisms in fish
Definition
-intraoral prey transport by water currents
-mouth opening caused by both lower jaw depression and elevation
Term
Evolution of feeding mechanisms in tetrapods
Definition
-tongue-based intraoral transport
Term
Evolution of feeding mechanisms in amniotes
Definition
-short slow-open phase just prior to fast opening
-inertail feeding is present (using inertia of food to get it deeper in the mouth)
-gape increases mainly by lower jaw depression
Term
Describe the pharyngeal anatomy of jawed fishes.
Definition
There are 6 pharyngeal pouches that extend laterally and open to the outside. The pharynx is large due to its role in respiration and food capture. They use gill rakers on the inside of the pharynx to move food down.
Term
In which classification of animals is the pharynx a short connecting segment between the oral cavity and the esophagus?
Definition
tetrapods
Term
True or false: Lungs develop off of the posterior end of the pharynx.
Definition
TRUE
Term
Mammals only have 4 pharyngeal pouches, and all are modified in the adult. Describe all four.
Definition
*Pouch 1=middle/inner ear cavity
*Pouch 2=thyroid, tonsils
*Pouch 3=part of the parathymoid
*Pouch 4=part of the parathymoid and the thymus
Term
What is peristalsis?
Definition
alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction that move food through the gut
Term
Since the potential exists for abrasion by food items, the esophagus is...
Definition
lined with a layer of epithelial tissue and has lubricated mucous secreting cells
Term
Name the four animals that lack a stomach.
Definition
Lampreys, tunicates, amphioxus, and hagfish
Term
The stomach of an adult human can hold about...
Definition
2 liters of food and liquid
Term
What is the function of smooth muscles in the stomach wall?
Definition
They churn food and mix it with HCl, which has a pH of 2
Term
Name 6 functions of the stomach.
Definition
Storage, chemical breakdown of food, denature proteins using pepsin, regulate flow, degrade the cell matrix, and kill bacteria
Term
What unique modification do crocodiles and birds have in regards to a stomach?
Definition
They have thick, muscular gizzards to grind up their food
Term
Why do cows and other mammal herbivores have large, multi-chambered stomachs?
Definition
to digest tough, nutrient-poor plant material
Term
Name the four chambers of a cow stomach.
Definition
Rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum
Term
Which chamber of the cow stomach is most comparable to the typical mammalian stomach?
Definition
The abomasum
Term
The rumen and reticulum of a cow stomach share an open connection and can hold up to 300+ liters of plant material. What happens here?
Definition
Plant food and saliva mix with bacterial and protozoan colonies that synthesize cellulose.
Term
The breakdown of cellulose in a cow stomach produces...
Definition
CO2, methane and organic acids; acids are buffered by the higher pH of the saliva; gases are belched out with the regurgitated food (cud) from the reticulum
Term
The cud (food) from a cow stomach is...
Definition
re-chewed and re-swallowed
Term
As much as 70% of the cow's caloric intake occurs...
Definition
via absorption in the reticulorumen
Term
Broken down food particles in a cow's stomach can pass through the...
Definition
reticulum to the omasum where more absorption occurs
Term
Where does protein digestion occur in a cow stomach?
Definition
In the gastric glands in the walls of the abomasum
Term
This is the primary organ of digestion and absorption
Definition
The small intestine
Term
Which division of the small intestine is the duodenum?
Definition
It is the first division
Term
What happens in the duodenum?
Definition
Slurry from the stomach mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and intestinal wall
Term
The liver produces bile that is stored in the gallbladder. What is the importance of bile?
Definition
-Bile aids in digestion and absorption of fat and helps raise the pH of food coming from the stomach
-Bile contains reddish-brown pigments that are by-products of the liver destroying red blood cells
Term
The pancreas produces lots of digestive enzymes. Name 5 enzymes and what they do.
Definition
1. Pancreatic amylases- digest complex carbs (starch and glycogen) in disaccharides
2. Maltase breaks maltose into 2 glucose molcules
3. Trypsin- breaks polypeptides into smaller chains (the pancreas secretes this in an inactive form and it must be activated first)
4. Nucleases- break down DNA and RNA into nucleotides
5. Lipase- finishes the breakdown of fat into glycerol and fatty acids
Term
The second and third divisions of the small intestine are...
Definition
the jejunum and the ileum
Term
The jejunum and the ileum function in...
Definition
the absorption of nutrients and water
Term
The jejunum and the ileum consist of...
Definition
several layers of epithelial tissue and muscle
Term
The second and third divisions of the small intestine have a huge surface area for...
Definition
absorption; folds have secondary projections called villi
Term
Each cell on the villi has...
Definition
smaller projections called microvilli, which are the principle sites for absorption
Term
Villi contain networks of blood vessels separated from the intestinal contents by...
Definition
two layers of cells: the epithelial lining and the capillary lining
Term
Nutrients either diffuse or are transported from the intestinal lumen into...
Definition
the bloodstream and then to the liver
Term
How much of the food eaten in a meal will be absorbed?
Definition
80-90%
Term
The large intestine, or colon, receives...
Definition
undigestable food like plant cell walls-all of this is feces
Term
Feces is passed out through the...
Definition
rectum and anus (or the cloaca of monotremes and most non-mammalian vertebrates)
Term
The major function of the large intestine is...
Definition
water reabsorption
Term
The colon contains bacteria (like E.coli), which...
Definition
-produce gases like methane as a by product
-live off of undigested food
-may produce beneficial vitamins that are absorbed by the blood
Term
Lampreys have a relatively straight intestine except for...
Definition
a single longitudinal/ spiral internal fold
Term
Sharks have a straight, valvular intestine with...
Definition
an extensive spiral valve to slow the rate of food passage and increase absorptive surface area
Term
Bony fish like lungfish, bowfins, and teleost lose the spiral valve and have a long and coiled intestine; they also have...
Definition
a caeca in the stomach for increased absorption
Term
What is a caecum?
Definition
A blind sac that stores or holds food; a hindgut fermenter is less effecient than a foregut
Term
What is different about the small and large intestine of tetrapods?
Definition
They have a distinct regionalization and specialization
Term
What structure of a human is equivalent to a caecum?
Definition
An appendix
Term
Why do herbivores have longer intestines?
Definition
To increase digestive time
Term
Why are enlarged caecae often present in herbivores?
Definition
to house bacterial colonies that aid in digestion of plant material
Term
This develops as an outpocketing of the digestive tube just caudal to the stomach
Definition
the liver
Term
What is the largest organ in the body cavity?
Definition
the liver is the largest one
Term
Nutrients are brought to the liver from the intestine in the...
Definition
blood via the hepatic portal vein
Term
The liver functions in maintaining what?
Definition
Blood glucose levels; it can convert extra glucose into glycogen or break glycogen down into glucose
Term
Name two functions (other than glucose levels) of the liver.
Definition
-detoxification
-destruction of hemoglobin from old red blood cells
Term
What does the pancreas develop from?
Definition
1 or more primordia derived from the liver or intestinal wall
Term
The pancreas produces these two things that are used in glucose regulation.
Definition
Insulin and glucagon
Term
What exactly does insulin do?
Definition
It stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells and promotes storage of excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles when blood sugar rises above 0.1%
Term
What stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose when blood sugar decreases below 0.1% and blood sugar then rises back to normal levels?
Definition
Glucagon
Term
Is ventilation positive or negative pressure?
Definition
Positive
Term
Describe ventilation in sharks.
Definition
-inhalation also called suction, is the dropping of the lower jaw; it is negative pressure
Term
What is the difference between osteostracans and teleost in relation to pouches and surface area for respiration.
Definition
Osteostracans have a higher surface area and 10 pouches, but their system is not efficient because water must enter and exit through the same pathway. Teleosts have gills with openings on each side to allow water to flow more smoothly even though they have only 6 pouches.
Term
Lungs in fish show a possible primitive state for all...
Definition
Vertebrates
Term
Lungs either have a direct or indirect connection with the esophagus. What helps balance pressure and the gradient?
Definition
Rete mirable, which is a countercurrent exchanger or multiplier
Term
In the gas gland of a fish, what happens if the CO2 concentration and the lactic acid concentration both increase?
Definition
The pH of the blood would decrease
Term
Physocistous is seen in bony fish like perch. What does it mean?
Definition
There is no connection between the trachea and the swim bladder of the fish
Term
Respiration involves both the circulatory and the respiratory systems. Define respiration.
Definition
The uptake of O2 from the environment and discharge of CO2
Term
Exchange occurs entirely through diffusion in respiration. What affects the rate of diffusion?
Definition
Surface area and distance; as surface area goes up so does the rate of diffusion. Distance and rate of diffusion are inversely related.
Term
To maximize gas exchange, respiratory surfaces should be...
Definition
thin and have large surface areas
Term
Name two major constraints of living in water in regards to oxygen uptake.
Definition
1. Amount of O2 dissolved in water is less than the amount of O2 dissolved in air (air has 3.5 times more O2)
2. Water is much more dense and viscous, so more energy is required to transport water
Term
These two features of the gills of an aquatic animal help increase surface area for the uptake of O2 from water
Definition
Primary lamellae and secondary lamellae
Term
What is countercurrent flow? Hint: It maintains a steep gradient for diffusion
SEE GRAPH IN NOTES (pg. 63)
Definition
Water goes toward the gill arch while blood flows away from the gill arch and to the body. They pass each other and water loses O2 as blood gains it.
Term
In concurrent flow, as the as the direction of water flow and blood flow along a gill lamellae approach each other...
Definition
The rate of O2 diffusion decreases
Supporting users have an ad free experience!