Term
| What are Newton’s three laws of motion? |
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Definition
-Law of inertia: a body at rest remains at rest unless a force is applied to it
-Applied forces cause acceleration, which is how the formula F=ma came about.
-Equal and opposite forces |
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Term
| An organism experiences gravity, shear, torsion, fractures, and compression and tension bending. What do these experiences say about an organism? |
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Definition
| Living organisms cannot escape their physical environments |
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Term
| Bone is strong, renewable, light weight, responds to stimuli, and it has a plastic region. What property of bone allows for these characteristics? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is stress (in reference to bone)? |
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Definition
| Stress is loads of compression and tension that are always present |
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Term
| Lamellae bones usually have different fiber directions. Explain why this is important. |
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Definition
| The bone fibers (collagen) run in 90 degree angles perpendicular to each other, thus the bone is stronger. |
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Term
| Collagen bundles in lamellae are _______ ______, with rows of ________ between each layer of bundles. |
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Definition
| parallel sheets; osteocytes |
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Term
| Bone forming cells get this name when the formation of a membrane bone forces mesenchyme cells to transform |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| They deposit concentric layers of lamellae bone to form a columnar osteon. They also secrete osteoids which then calcify the osetoid matrix |
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Term
| New osteons replace old osteons when...? |
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Definition
| Bone is remodeled; fragments of the old osteons still remain in between the new ones |
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Term
| Compression is equal to tension when forces are...? |
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Definition
| Along the neutral axis of the body |
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Term
| An I-beam is supported at each end and a load is applied to the middle so the top surface is under compression and the bottom is under tension. What is a biological example of an I-beam? |
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Definition
| The mandible of a mammal; recall sheep ulna/radius experiment |
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Term
| What is the equation for calculating mechanical advantage and what are its implications? |
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Definition
| Equation: Li (in lever or effort arm) divided by Lo (out lever or resistance arm; a low mechanical advantage is less than one and it implies low power, but high speed [3rd order]; a high mechanical advantage implies high power but low speed [2nd order] |
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Term
| Describe, in detail, what a second order lever is. Provide an example. |
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Definition
| A second order lever implies that the resistance is applied between the effort arm and the fulcrum. It provides high power, high force, high mechanical advantage, but LOW speed. An example would be a ballerina lifting herself onto her toes or a wheelbarrow. |
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Term
| Describe, in detail, what a third order lever is. Provide an example. |
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Definition
| A third order lever exists with the effort arm between the resistance arm and the fulcrum. The mechanical advantage is low, thus the power is low and speed is high. An example is a horse retracting its front leg. |
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Term
| This thumb-like projection in birds can be described as a slate of a plane. It increases lift and decreases the potential for stalling. |
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Definition
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Term
| Connective, Epithelial, Muscle, and Nervous tissue are found in...? |
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Definition
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Term
| The function of this tissue is to provide support and resist compression. It is a composite of fibroblasts and a ground matrix. |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain the components of connective tissue in detail. |
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Definition
| It has fibers, which are made up of collagen (rope-like) and elastin (thin and like a rubber band). It also contains a matrix composed of ground substance, which contains bottle brush-like proteoglycans that make it gel-like, and water and adhesion proteins. Additionally, it has GAGs that are negative in charge and repel water forming the actual gel. |
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Term
| this tissue is widely distributed under the epidermis of the body. |
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Definition
| Loose (fibrous) connective tissue |
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Term
| This tissue is irregular in arrangement. |
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Definition
| Dense irregular connective tissue in the dermis |
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Term
| This tissue makes up ligaments and tendons. It can be composite with layers in a regular arrangement or composite in bundles. |
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Definition
| Dense regular connective tissue |
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Term
| This tissue is found in joints, resists tension and compression. It also holds a lot of water. |
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Definition
| Hyaline cartilage (a dense regular connective tissue) |
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Term
| This tissue is similar to hyaline cartilage, but has more elastic fibers in the matrix. It functions to maintain shape of a structure. |
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Definition
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Term
| This tissue is calcified into hydroxyapatite and is vascularized. It serves to support the body and store calcium. |
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Definition
| Bone tissue or Osseous tissue |
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Term
| A part of bone tissue that forms blood cells |
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Definition
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Term
| Capillaries, fibrobalsts in the perichondrium, condroblasts, a matrix that aborbs/exudes water, and chondrocytes in the lacuna |
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Definition
| These are the five key components of cartilage |
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Term
| The organic portion is 1/3 and it includes collagen and other proteins; the inorganic portion is 2/3 and it includes hydroxyapatite and other minerals |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Crystals of calcium phosphate found in vertebrates |
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Term
| Why does bone have both collagen and minerals? |
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Definition
| Without collagen it would be too brittle and without minerals it would be too flexible |
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Term
| In a long bone, the proximal epiphysis is made up of...? |
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Definition
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Term
| The diaphysis of a long bone is the shaft or middle part. What is so important about it? |
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Definition
| It contains periosteum, perforating (Sharpey's) fibers, and nutrient arteries |
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Term
| The distal epiphysis is...? |
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Definition
| The farthest part of the long bone in relation to where the bone meets the body. For example, it is the end of the radius/ulna that is closest to the hand. |
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Term
| Hyaline cartilage in a juvenile allows for growth at the ends of and in the middle of long bone at this structure |
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Definition
| The epiphyseal plate or growth plate; it ossifies at maturity (this is appositionaal growth) |
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Term
| The unmineralized, inorganic portion of the fibrous bone is called the...? |
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Definition
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Term
| This is seen in early jawless fishes; it is associated with the retreat of osteoblasts onto a single surface forming scales |
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Definition
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Term
| This is the name for the living cells on the outside of bone; it can fix itself and is constantly modifying the bone |
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Definition
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Term
| Each of these is centered around a blood vessel and contains all the concentric lamellae and lacunae with their osteocytes |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do invertebrates have calcium carbonate while vertebrates have calcium phosphate? |
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Definition
| Vertebrates have a higher activity level, thus they need a mineral that can handle higher pH. Calcium phosphate is more stable for this purpose. |
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Term
| Flat bone is also called...? |
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Definition
| Dermal bone or membrane bone |
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Term
| What are three examples of membrane bone? |
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Definition
| clavicle, skull roofing bones, and the scapula of embryos |
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Term
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Definition
| It is just another way to say bone formation. |
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Term
| These are small rod-like structures of bone that form, merge, anad engulf everything. Many osteoblasts remain on the outer surface of these while the interior of the bone is remodeled. |
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Definition
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Term
| Formation of a bony collar around a hyaline cartilage model and have a primary ossification center |
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Definition
| This is the first step of endochondral ossification |
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Term
| Rows of chondrocytes form; cartilage is calcified, and a cavity begins to form |
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Definition
| This is the second step of endochondral ossification |
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Term
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Definition
| A wrapper that forms around the middle of long bones |
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Term
| Invasion of the internal cavity by periosteal bud and spongy bone formation |
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Definition
| This is the third step of endochondral ossification (replacement bone formation) |
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Term
| Medullary cavity forms and the secondary ossification center appears at the epiphysis |
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Definition
| This is the fourth step of endochondral ossification |
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Term
| The epiphysis ossifies; hyaline cartilage remains only at the epiphyseal plates and the articular cartilages |
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Definition
| This is the last step of endochondral ossification |
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Term
| -Chondrocytes enlarge and die while calcification increases -bone lengthens -invasion of cells from the periosteum bring osteoblasts and osteoplasts (osteoplasts release calcium) -oseteoclasts remodel the bone |
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Definition
| These are the details of steps 2 and 3 of endochondral ossification |
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Term
| Increasing the diameter of the bone is the goal of...? |
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Definition
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Term
| Bone formation at the surface of the bone produces ridges that parallel a blood vessel. The ridges enlarge and create a deep pocket. The ridges meet and fuse trapping the vessel inside the bone. The ultimate goal is appositional growth. |
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Definition
| This is how osteons are formed. |
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Term
| Osteoclasts tunnel into old bone in a spiral movement and destroy what is in its path releasing calcium. Osteoblasts lay down new bone in layers. |
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Definition
| Remodeling of bone in response to stress |
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Term
| This is a large complex organ that synthesizes vitamin D (among other functions) |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three types of epithelial tissues? |
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Definition
| Squamosal, columnar, and cuboidal |
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Term
| Name the four layers of mammal epidermis. |
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Definition
| Stratum corneum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum spinosum, Stratum germinativum |
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Term
| Cells are dead; represented by only flat membranous sacs filled with keratin. Glycolipids are in the extracellular space to stop water from entering the skin. |
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Definition
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Term
| Cells are flattened; organelles deteriorating; cytoplasm is full of lamellated granules that release lipids, and keratohyaline granules |
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Definition
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Term
| Cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin |
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Definition
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Term
| Cells are actively mitotic stem cells; some newly formed cells become part of the more superficial layers |
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Definition
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Term
| Xanthophores, erythrophores, and melanophores are all types of what? |
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Definition
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Term
| An organism is hard to see because it is blending itself in with the surroundings. What is this called? |
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Definition
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Term
| Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions occur when a structure descends from the neural crest migration between the dermis and the epidermis |
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Definition
| This is how teeth, feathers, scales, and hair are made |
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Term
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Definition
| -heavy armour seen in heterostracans (agnathan) which have these scales -these scales decrease buoyancy, protect the organism, and let them invade/live in fresh water habitats because they have a calcium sink |
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Term
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Definition
| -armor is reduced in placoderms to only isolated denticles in sharks -these scales break through the skin surface for protection |
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Term
| -Organisms with these scales are not flexible -deintine and enamel deposits on bone -basal fish have armor-like scales of this type |
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Definition
| Ganoid scales which are heavy and tightly held together |
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Term
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Definition
| -armor is reduced to be more flexible -has an increased activity level -bony scales in epidermis -ctenoid scales -mucous glands in a thin epidermis-decreases drag and lowers the possibility of forming vortices |
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Term
| The glands of this organism are toxic to predators. an example is the parotid gland on the back of toads |
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Definition
| Thin and colorful skin of amphibians |
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Term
| -more keratin produces thicker skin -ecdysis=shedding or molting -less water loss because skin is high in keratin and phospholipids -claws come from the Stratum germinativum and incorporate calcium salts and keratin |
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Definition
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Term
| These are the six types of feathers. |
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Definition
| Filoplume, downy, flight, tail, semiplume, and bristle |
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Term
| This is the gland that secretes oil near the base of the tail; these oils are used by birds to waterproof their feathers |
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Definition
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Term
| This is made of dermal bone and keratin; it is NOT shed or branched (hooves act in a very similar way); some only have hair-like keratin fibers |
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Definition
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Term
| These are initially covered in skin, keratinized, and branched; often shed after mating season |
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Definition
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Term
| Protection, support, Calcium reservoir, body shape, blood formation, levers for muscles, phosphate reservoirs, formation of fossils |
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Definition
| These are all reasons to have a skeleton! |
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Term
| -endoskeletal; protects brain, nose, inner ear -cartilage is transformed into endochondral bone -trabecula grows to meet the parachordals and form the ethmoid plate -its origin is the neural crest -the trough surrounds the brain which sits on top of the basal plate |
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Definition
| This is all associated with the chondrocranium (also called the neurocranium) |
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Term
| tracbeculae around the nasal sacs grow and fuse with the ethmoid plate to form the nasal septum |
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Definition
| Nasal capsule of the chondrocranium |
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Term
-surrounds the inner ear
-contain the semicircular ducts that function in equilibrium and hearing
-in mammals, these bones fuse with the dermal squamosal to form the temporal |
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Definition
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Term
-form around the eye but don't fuse
-form orbital cartilages which fuse with the lateral wall of the braincase and sclerotic bones
-basisphenoid forms the posterior base and walls of the braincase
-sphenethmoid forms the anterior base and walls of the braincase |
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Definition
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Term
| The basioccipital, exoccipitals (2), supraoccipital, and the foramen magnum are all part of the...? |
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Definition
| Occipital arches that fuse to form the braincase |
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Term
-origin=neural crest, endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
-composition: visceral arches lining the pharynx, gill support, jaws
-functions: feeding and respiration; supports the gills
-contracting muscles compress the pharynx to push out water; relaxation to suck in water=jet propulsion |
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Definition
| Splanchnocranium or the visceral cranium |
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Term
-surrounds everything else and fills in gaps
-origin is the neural crest |
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Definition
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Term
a) dermal roof- covers top and sides of the head
b)palatal series- covers the roof of the mouth
c)parasphenoid bone- covers the posteromedial ventral surface of the chondrocranium |
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Definition
| Dermatocranium bones form series (a-c) |
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Term
d)lower jaw series-all dermal bones; must remove this to see Meckel's cartilage
e)opercular series- covers branchial region laterally in bony fishes
f)gular series-covers branchial region ventrally in bony fishes
e and f are part of feeding and respiration |
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Definition
| Dermatocranium bones form series (d-f) |
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Term
| Characteristics of AUTOSTYLIC jaw suspension |
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Definition
-palatoquardate firmly attached
-hyomandibula not involved
-provides a firm crushing platform
-found in placoderms, some sharks, chimeras, secondarily in lungfishes and tetrapods |
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Term
-palatoquadrate has one or more moveable articulations
-allows for greater mobility
-hyomandibula=prop for the otic capsule
-basal chondrichthyans (sharks) and bony fishes |
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Definition
| Characteristics of AMPHISTYLIC jaw suspension |
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Term
| Characteristics of HYOSTYLIC jaw suspension |
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Definition
-palatoquadrate attached solely by the large hyomandibula
-GREAT flexibility
-jaws floating by ligaments
-in some sharks and bony fishes |
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Term
| What is the difference between the chondrocranium of fish? |
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Definition
-not ossified well in sharks
-well ossified in bony fishes |
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Term
| The dermatocranium is absent in which vertebrates? |
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Definition
| hagfish, lampreys, chondrichthyans |
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Term
| Splanchnocranium ossification in fish |
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Definition
-palatoquadrate=quadrate bone
-caudal mandibular cartilage= articular bone
-quadrate+articular=jaw joint except in mammals
-hyomandibula ossifies too |
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Term
-early tetrapods lost connection between the pectoral girdle and the back of the skull which allowed for the head to move independently and a neck to develop
-lost the opercular bone |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
-articular becomes the malleus
-quadrate becomes the incus
-lower jaw is entirely dermal in origin |
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Term
| The choanae came before parental care which came before lactation in mammals. Why does this matter? |
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Definition
| Mammals must have evolved this set up in order to have a hard palate and be able to suck and breathe at the same time. |
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Term
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Definition
-The columella extends between the otic region and the quadrate
-IN FROGS: The columella acts as an auditory ossicle to transmit vibrations from the tympanum to the otic capsules
-Branchial arches are reduced and incorporated into the hyobranchial apparatus (think chameleons) |
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Term
| Name the five things that set the mammal jaw apart from other vertebrates. |
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Definition
-HUGE temporal fenestra
-large zygomatic process (cheek bone) for chewing/biting
-expansion of the dentary
-quadrate and the articular become inner ear bones
-jaw joint is stronger because the temporalis and masseter muscles run in opposing directions to balance forces |
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Term
| What are temporal fenestrae? |
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Definition
| Openings in the temporal region of some amniote skulls that are bounded by one or more bony arches |
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Term
| Describe anapsid skull fenestration. This is seen in turtles. |
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Definition
| the bones completely encase the adductor muscles; less mechanical advantage due to constrained space |
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Term
| What are the details of diapsid skull fenestration. Diapsids are creatures like lizards, snakes, and archosaurs |
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Definition
-both superior and inferior fenestrae
-lower arch corresponds to the zygomatic arch of mammals
-the supratemporal arch (composed by contributions from 2 to 3 bones) is the upper arch that separates the two fenestrae
-Better mechanical advantage; less constrained, but braincase is ususally not ossified completely |
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Term
| Describe the details of synapsid skull fenestration. Mammals are synapsids. |
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Definition
-One fenestra bounded by the zygomatic arch to balances the forces from the upper jaw
-Best mechanical advantage, least constrained, fully ossified braincase |
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Term
| Tetrapod changes in the splanchnocranium |
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Definition
-branchial arches are reduced because the gills are lost
-the arches become part of the hyobranchial apparatus: hyoid and the laryngeal cartilages as sound chords |
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