The change over time in a species

Relies on adaptation and variability

Natural selection - "survival of the fittest" and not about moral qualifications

Forms of Data used to

Interpret the Past

1. Stones/Bones (artifacts)
2. Ethnographies of Foragers
3. Studies of Primates
4. Computer Model

• ~4-6 million years before present
• bipedal, longer arms than primates, smaller brains, large jaws/molars (indicates vegetarianism)
• No stone tools (used animal bones/horns for tools)
• Ex: "Lucy"

• ~2-4 mybp
• "Handy Man" - presence of stone tools
• Ability to share knowledge/culture and plan ahead
• Cut grass with tools and ate bone marrow (but didn't hunt for the animals)

• ~1.8 mybp
• "Upright Man"
• Used fire to cook meat/fish, survive in colder cliamtes, for protection, and to explore
• Found in Eastern Asia, Java, China, Africa

• ~1.8 mybp
• Less sexual dimorphism
• Smaller face/cranial capacity
• Possibly descended from Erectus

• Evolved from Homo heidelbergensis
• Buried their dead with flowers which indicates ideas of afterlife and intensity of feeling

• Increasing brain size/capacity
• Communication
• Mobility (walking and not tree-climbing)
• Smaller pelvic opening makes childbirth more difficult
• Babies dependent on mothers and form close relationships

• Produce abstract concepts and symbols
• Family relationships
• Complex communication and speech
• Socialization
• Culture
• Giving meaning to objects

Effective adaptation to the natural environment

Established a sustainable balance

Maintained a satisfying and secure society

A politically autonomous, economically self-sufficient, territoirally-based society that can reproduce a distinct culture and language and form an endogamous society

Nomadic way of life for most of human history

Can be equestrian, aquatic, or pedestrian

No market relationships or private property

Collected cattle but also hunted and fished

Had little respect for horticulture

Villages were mobile, but occupied locations for longer periods of time

Didn't want to keep planting and deteriorating the soil

Learned to smoke and dry their food

Seasonal movement of livestock herds to maintain optimum grazing conditions and often involves altitudinal shifts

Gained from having a surplus of resources

Social position in a status hierarchy

Develops when people first domesticate plants/animals

Temporary inequalities constantly shift

A form of exchange in which goods are concentrated and then distributed under the control of a central political authority

- regulates rankings

A culturally defined stage of an age-class system

(childhood, adolescence, parenthood, old age)

A self-made leader in a tribal culture, gained from generosity (not hoarding a surplus)

Temporary position

Emphasis on community ceremonies (not power over the people)

Berdache/

Two Spirits

"Male prostitute"

Caused by a "spirit intervention" and considered powerful because of their spiritual allies

Marries another male to balance the division of labor

The son or daughter of one's mother's brother or father's sister

Marriageable

the son or daughter of one's mother's sister or father's brother

Considered siblings