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Crop Science Lab 3
Lab 3
751
Agriculture
Undergraduate 2
08/30/2016

Additional Agriculture Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

 

 

 

Facts learned about corn in lab:

Definition
 
  • this variety is called Flex
  • It adapts to its surroundings, at least, the Flex variety does
Term

 

 

 

Characteristics of low population density corn:

Definition

 

  • more weeds due to less light interception
  • more branches
  • mor ears of corn per plant
Term

 

 

 

Characteristics of corn at average population density:

Definition

 

 

  • 2 ears
  • really tall
Term

 

 

 

Characteristics of corn at high population density:

Definition

 

 

  • skinnier stalk
  • no nitrogen fertilizer
  • poor foliage
Term

 

 

 

Cotton doesn't produce what on its main stem?

Definition

 

 

 

boll

Term

 

 

 

# of branches for cotton in a HPD, MPD, and LPD

Definition

 

High population Density: 8
 

Medium population Density: 29

 

Low population Density: 25

 

Term

 

 

 

Are there any bolls on the main stem for cotton?

Definition

 

 

 

NO

Term

# of bolls on branches for cotton in a HPD, MPD, LPD

Definition

High population density: 7

Medium population density: 17

Low population density: 37

Term

 

 

 

# seeds/ear of corn in a HPD, MPD, LPD:

Definition

 

 

High population density: 350

Medium population density: 592

Low population density: 629 & 486

Term

 

 

# ears of corn in a HPD, MPD, LPD:

Definition

 

 

High population density: 1

Medium population density: 1

Low population density: 2

Term
does living mulch plant in the same rows?
Definition
no
Term
what we noticed about corn in normal stand
Definition
1 ear per plant
Term
what we noticed about corn in denser stand
Definition
had 1 ear, but it was smaller and the plant had a thinner stalk
Term
what we noticed about corn in stand that was half the normal density
Definition
2 ears per plant and the plant itself was wider and had more branching
Term
the downside to planting corn at half normal density and why that is
Definition
more weeds because of more light
Term
in population density, the trick is...
Definition
light interception
Term
this develops into cotton
Definition
bolls on cotton
Term
bolls on cotton develop into...
Definition
cotton
Term
some details we noticed about cotton at high density
Definition
-less foliage
-less branching
-fewer, if any, bolls
Term
some details we noticed about cotton at low density
Definition
-more branches
-wider plant
-more bolls
Term
the type of cotton we studied
Definition
Extend
Term
why we saw no bolls on the main stem of cotton
Definition
because cotton woin't produce bolls on main stem
Term
# of branches on cotton at low density
Definition
25
Term
# of branches on cotton at normal density
Definition
29
Term
# of branches on cotton at high density
Definition
8
Term
# of bolls on cotton at low density
Definition
37
Term
# of bolls on cotton at normal density
Definition
17
Term
# of bolls on cotton at high density
Definition
7
Term
what might happen to cotton if the population density is too high
Definition
no branches and no bolls
Term
marginal land
Definition
land susceptible to erosion
Term
# of ears on corn at low density
Definition
2
Term
# of ears on corn at medium density
Definition
1
Term
# of ears on corn at high density
Definition
1
Term
# of seeds down row per ear on corn at low density
Definition
37 & 27
Term
# of seeds down row per ear on corn at medium density
Definition
37
Term
# of seeds down row per ear on corn at high density
Definition
30
Term
# rows per ear on corn at low density
Definition
17 & 18
Term
# rows per ear on corn at medium density
Definition
16
Term
# rows per ear on corn at high density
Definition
14
Term
seeds per ear on corn at low density
Definition
629 & 486
Term
seeds per ear on corn at medium density
Definition
592
Term
seeds per ear on corn at high density
Definition
350 (avg)
Term
seeds per plant on corn at low density
Definition
1115
Term
seeds per plant on corn at medium density
Definition
592
Term
seeds per plant on corn at high density
Definition
350
Term
the type of corn we studied
Definition
Flex, which adapts to its environment
Term
# of traded crops
Definition
150
Term
the bulk of the world's food comes from how many crop species?
Definition
15
Term
the crops that make up the bulk of the world's food
Definition
-rice
-wheat
-corn
-sorghum
-barley
-sugarcane
-sugar beet
-potato
-sweet potato
-cassava
-field bean
-soybean
-peanut
-coconut
-banana
Term
uses for crops besides nutrition
Definition
-fiber
-dyes
-oil
-laytex/rubber
-drugs
-lumber
-herbs
Term
some crops used for fiber
Definition
-cotton
-hemp (marijuana)
Term
some crops used for dyes
Definition
indigo
Term
some crops used for oil
Definition
-tongue
-flax
Term
crops used for latex/rubber
Definition
none listed
Term
the crops that make up the bulk of the world's food
Definition
-rice
-wheat
-corn
-sorghum
-barley
-sugarcane
-sugar beet
-potato
-sweet potato
-cassava
-field bean
-soybean
-peanut
-coconut
-banana
Term
uses for crops besides nutrition
Definition
-fiber
-dyes
-oil
-laytex/rubber
-drugs
-lumber
-herbs
Term
some crops used for fiber
Definition
-cotton
-hemp (marijuana)
Term
some crops used for dyes
Definition
indigo
Term
some crops used for oil
Definition
-tongue
-flax
Term
crops used for latex/rubber
Definition
none listed
Term
some reasons for being reliant on so few crops
Definition
-efficiency
-adaptable to different climates
-genetic manipulation
-large harvest index (proportion of the plant that’s harvestable)
-nutrient dense
-multi-use
-might grow quicker and mature at the same time
-uniform maturity
-natural resistance
-perform well
-storable form
-non-toxic
-plant architecture

the point: plants with all these traits are hard to find
Term
what cooking does to meat
Definition
-kills pathogens in the meat
-makes it have longer shelf life
Term
what cooking does to plants
Definition
makes them have longer shelf life
Term
food supply iin primitive society
Definition
temporal and extreme, that is, feast or famine
Term
Who has more sortisol in their hair: us or our ancestors?
Definition
us
Term
agriculture enabled us to do this with meat and plant consumption
Definition
harvest them as needed
Term
when did cirties start forming?
Definition
Neolithic age
Term
where was Mesopotamia?
Definition
in Iraq, between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
Term
agriculture gave this to cities
Definition
free time to come up with creative things to do, such as slavery
Term
in Mesopotamia, they started selecting crops for...
Definition
crop improvement
Term
where did wheat originate?
Definition
Iraq
Term
the major wheat producers today
Definition
-U.S.
-Canada
-Argentina
-Russia
Term
distribution of ag land along Nile River
Definition
narrow strips of ag land along Nile River
Term
why it's bad for a civilization to be dependent on one geographical feature
Definition
makes it very unstable
Term
this feature of geography is important for producing a large food supply
Definition
geographic diversity
Term
why you should apply what you found in basic research
Definition
because if you just focus on basic research, but don’t apply it, you’re just wasting your time
Term
truck farm
Definition
farm that produces crops and takes them from place they produce them and sell them in the city
Term
the effect of absentee land ownership
Definition
led to lower efficiency on the farm
Term
why the Roman system of ag went downhill
Definition
largely because of absentee land ownership
Term
what fire and ag led to
Definition
civilization
Term
this led to civilization
Definition
fire and ag
Term
how fire expanded the food supply
Definition
many plants inedible, poisonous, or unsanitary unless cooked
Term
what crop and animal utilization led to
Definition
stable food supply
Term
what the advent of ag meant for what people could do
Definition
fewerpeople needed for food production, which meant people had more time for leisure and other things
Term
how ag made it possible for people to have more time for leisure and other things
Definition
fewer people needed for food production
Term
when agriculture developed
Definition
nearly all crop and animal agriculture developed during prehistoric times
Term
2 critical processes necessary to develop agriculture
Definition
a. domestication of wild species as cultivated crops
b. selection of superior types within the species
Term
historical timetable
Definition
a. paleolithic period
b. neolithic age
c. Mesopotamia
Term
When was the Paleolithic Period?
Definition
30,000-15,000BC
Term
When was the Neolithic Age?
Definition
8,000-6,000BC
Term
When was Mesopotamia?
Definition
5,000BC
Term
how humans got food during Paleolithic Period
Definition
hunting and gathering
Term
how the way humans got food changed during the Neolithic Age
Definition
crop cultivation and domestication (beginning of ag)
Term
tyime during which ag began
Definition
Neolithic Age
Term
this feature between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers made Mesopotamia possible
Definition
the Fertile Crescent
Term
selection of crops for improvement (yield) began here
Definition
Mesopotamia
Term
when crops in Mesopotamia were harvested
Definition
from early to late maturity
Term
what Mesopotamians did with grain heads
Definition
made silage
Term
what Mesopotamians did with the surplus
Definition
stored it underground
Term
why Mesopotamia is called the cradle of civilization
Definition
because it was the first urban economy
Term
Mesopotamia had a surplus of people. What did this lead to?
Definition
-slavery common
-war
-led to self destruction
Term
what led to Mesopotamia's self-destruction?
Definition
surplus of people, which also caused common slavery and war
Term
some crops grown by the Mesopotamians
Definition
-wheat
-barley
-fig
-date
-olive
-grape
Term
area cultivated by Mesopotamians
Definition
10,000 square miles
Term
thye area the Mesopotamians cultivated fed how many people?
Definition
1.5 million
Term
when was the Egyptian era?
Definition
3,500BC
Term
some details of agriculture in the Egyptian era
Definition
1. drained flood plains of Nile Valley
2. irrigation was developed
3. improved harvesting technology
4. developed culinary techniques
5. utilized plants for many reasons
6. confined by desert
Term
how the Egyptians drained the flood plains of the Nile Valley
Definition
-required major reshaping of land (slope)
-effecient conduction (movement) systems for water removal
Term
how the Egyptians irrigated
Definition
-water procurement (shadoof=pumps)
-conduction of water
-application- flood and furrow irrigation
Term
shadoof
Definition
pumps used by the Egyptians for irrigation
Term
types of irrigation used by the Egyptians
Definition
-flood irrigation
-furrow irrigation
Term
harvesting technology invented by the Egyptians
Definition
-sickles
-scythes
Term
culinary techniques developed by the Egyptians
Definition
-ceramics
-baking
-wine making
-food storage
Term
the function of ceramics made by the Egyptians
Definition
containers for food
Term
some food storage techniques developed by the Egyptians
Definition
-pickling
-fermenting
-drying
-smoking
Term
some plants used by Egyptians
Definition
-papyrus
-date palm
-castor bean
-pine trees
Term
what the Egyptians used papyrus for
Definition
paper
Term
what the Egyptians used date palm for
Definition
fiber
Term
what the Egyptians used castor bean for
Definition
oil
Term
what the Egyptians used pine trees for
Definition
resins
Term
why the Egyptian civilization was limited in growth
Definition
surrounded by desert
Term
when was the Greek era?
Definition
1,000BC
Term
the Greeks began this pertaining to plants
Definition
the formal study of plants
Term
Theophrastes
Definition
-wrote "History of Plants"
-known as Father of Botany
Term
this guy wrote "History of Plants"
Definition
Theophrastes
Term
this guy is known as the Father of Botany
Definition
Theophrastes
Term
what Theophrastes studied concerning plants
Definition
-plant morphology
-classification
-seed and vegetative propagation
-insect pests
-plant geography
Term
what Theophrastes distinguished in plants
Definition
-angiosperms and gymnosperms
-monocots and dicots
-noted annual rings on trees
-discovered sexes in fruits
Term
the downside of Theophrastes's studies
Definition
focus on the basics, little offered for applied research
Term
how the landscape of Greece has transformed
Definition
transformed from being covered with trees to being mostly barren rock
Term
what poor land use did to Greece
Definition
converted much of the islands into barren rock
Term
what Plato had to write about te land of Greece concerning how it transformed
Definition
"once had bountiful meadows for livestock with aboundant water fed from springs. Now the land looks like the skin of a sick old man."
Term
when was the Roman era?
Definition
200BC
Term
in the general sense, the Romans did this concerning agriculture
Definition
interacted in practical agriculture
Term
some aspects of the Roman approach to agriculture
Definition
a. small farms 1-4 acres
b. developed into plantation systems
c. tenant farmer (rent land)
Term
some details about small farms in Roman era
Definition
-intensive management
-primarily truck farms
-villages of farmers used Rome as market place
-agriculture based soley upon profit
Term
what agriculture was based on in Roman era
Definition
soley upon profit
Term
what small farms in the Roman era developed into
Definition
plantation systems
Term
some details of plantation systems in Roman era
Definition
-slavery-like management/labor force interaction
-absentee ownership
-agriculture declined because no one paid attention to the land
Term
why agriculture declined in the Roman era
Definition
because no one paid attention to the land
Term
when dod tenant farming come about in the Roman era?
Definition
about 200AD
Term
some details about tenant farming
Definition
-rent land
-replaced slavery
-tenants became indebted and system eroded
-tenants reduced in class from "citizen" to "serf"
-no attention to land
Term
the effect of the tenant farming system in the Roman era
Definition
-tenants become indebted and system eroded
-tenants reduced in class from "citizen" to "serf"
Term
when was Medieval agriculture?
Definition
1200AD
Term
system of farming used in Medieval agriculture?
Definition
estate or manor

this was in a feudal system
Term
primary concern of estate farming
Definition
self suffeciency of estate
Term
the people who managed the estate farming system
Definition
the knights
Term
the role of knights in the estate farming system
Definition
-managers
-made sure eferybody was trained
Term
crop production used these strategies
Definition
intensive and extensive
Term
crops for which intensive strategies were used
Definition
-fruits
-veggies
Term
crops for which extensive strategies were used
Definition
-grains
-meats
Term
the people who basically barrowed the land in the estate farming system
Definition
tenants
Term
tenants
Definition
the people who basically borrowed the land in the estate farming system
Term
technology isolationism
Definition
technology being isolated to the place it originated
Term
what led to the failure of the estate farming system?
Definition
technology isolation
Term
some details about civilization in stone age
Definition
-low population density
-abundant wildlife
-men hunted and women farmed
-Plains people used fire and buffalo jumps
-Central and South Americans had great civilizations based on Maize culture; food was abundant
Term
new crops that came from the New World
Definition
-corn (maize)
-potatoes
-tomato
-sweet potato
-field bean
-squash
-pumpkin
-pecan
-pineapple
-cashew
-brazil nut
-cranberry
Term
amount of dieet from animal agriculture in N. American natives' diet
Definition
50% of diet
Term
diet Lewis and Clark noticed among the natives
Definition
-men consumed 12-16lbs of meat per day
-some roots and dried berries
-fruits when could be found
Term
agricultural technique the Mayans perfected
Definition
companion cropping
Term
example of companion cropping
Definition
corn and bean being grown together; still a staple in Central America
Term
what the Incas did to keep potatoes longer
Definition
freeze dried potatoes

crush, freeze, crush, freeze
Term
what the Incas did to conrtrol erosion
Definition
terraced the land
Term
2 things the Incas did to the landscape
Definition
-terracing
-building reservoirs
Term
the effect of the natives burning grass
Definition
-animals don't like sticking their heads in there because they get pink eye, which can spread rapidly
-the grass that returned was young and tender, such that animals wanted to return there
Term
buffalo jump
Definition
hunting method used by natives where they herded buffalo towards a point where there was a slope such that at some point, the traffic would get so congested that the buffalo would trip over each other and thus leave a bunch of maimed animals that would be easy to kill
Term
the effect of terracing
Definition
-controling erosion
-helping the land be more productive
Term
ag revolution
Definition
transition from Medieval to modern age because of new crops from New World
Term
when was the Ag Revolution?
Definition
1570's
Term
significance of potato
Definition
-potato introduced to Spain
-most important crop for CHO and ETOH
-when introduced to Ireland (1700), became primary source of food for most of population
Term
what Spaniards used potato for
Definition
they would ferment it and make ethanol to cook with (the 1st biofuel)
Term
the 1st biofuel
Definition
ethanol derived from fermenting potatos
Term
when was the potato introduced to Ireland?
Definition
about 1700
Term
clovers can be used for...
Definition
N-fixation and winter feed for cattle
Term
clovers for use in ag came about in...
Definition
right about 1800
Term
fenced fields for use in ag came around in...
Definition
right about 1800
Term
how clovers are w/ their nitrogen
Definition
very stingy
Term
how nitrogen from clovers becomes available to crops
Definition
becomes available after it passes thru an animal's digestive tract
Term
the market structure that came about during the Ag Revolution
Definition
supply/demand market structure
Term
ther balance of ag in the supply/demand market structure
Definition
kept production balanced between animal and crops
Term
before chemical fertilizer, this was used as fertilizer
Definition
manure
Term
marl
Definition
mix of Ca and Mg carbonates that acts as a fertilizer and adjusts the pH of the soil
Term
marl as a soil
Definition
soil rich in calcium carbonate. Often found in dry regions of the world that were once sea beds, glaciated landscapes, lake beds, or underlying peat bogs.
Term
examples of where marl an be found
Definition
-Israeli desert
-White Cliffs of Dover in England
Term
carbonates ratio of marl
Definition
6 Ca + Mg
Term
first crop in N. America
Definition
timber
Term
what timber was used for
Definition
-shipbuilding back in Europe
-tanning (hemlock)
-furniture
Term
why the pine tree was used to make masts
Definition
because the center of it has lots of pitch and turpines such that a nail won't go thru
Term
why live oaks were valuable
Definition
because they had angles in them that would work for bows of ships, since the wood is strong and ship bows would often be weak
Term
this was used for tanning
Definition
hemlock
Term
hemlock was used for...
Definition
tanning
Term
rice farming in the new world
Definition
grown in lowlands of carolinas

labor intensive
Term
how tobacco was originally grown in the new world
Definition
-grown in wooded areas using nomadic system
-"girdle" trees to kill them, grow tobacco among dead trees
-when trees rotted and fell over, moved to new area
-required large land holdings
-Washington and Jefferson farmed this way
Term
the effect of labor intensive agriculture in the New World
Definition
stimulated the development of slavery
Term
important invention in 1793
Definition
cotton gin
Term
cotton gin was invented in...
Definition
1793
Term
the effectiveness of 1 cotton gin
Definition
1 gin=100 men
Term
# of cotton bales exported in 1797
Definition
275
Term
# of cotton bales exported in 1800
Definition
36,000
Term
amount of U.S. population engaged in farming in 1800
Definition
90% ofpopulation
Term
important invention in 1831
Definition
Cyrus McCormick invents the mechanical reaper
Term
mechanical reaper invented in ______ by ______
Definition
1831
Cyrus McCormick
Term
what the mechanical reaper does
Definition
cut and bind wheat stocks
Term
the reason for technological progress in U.S. ag production
Definition
mechanization, which led to profitability
Term
tobacco farming was about...
Definition
leaf architecture
Term
this farming was done in woodlands
Definition
cotton/tobacco farming
Term
Congress passed this legislation in 1862
Definition
-USDA
-Homestead Act
-Morrill Act
-Land Grant College Act
-Hatch Act
Term
Congress passed this legislation (USDA, Homestead Act, Morrill Act, Land Grant College Act, Hatch Act) in...
Definition
1862
Term
Homestead Act
Definition
fed lands (farming)
Term
act that yielded fed lands (farming)
Definition
Homestead Act
Term
Morill Act
Definition
extension service
Term
act that yielded extension service
Definition
Morrill Act
Term
effect of the Land Grant College Act
Definition
every state has a land grant college, such that they have to do technology that’s specific to the state
Term
act that gave every state a land grant college
Definition
Land Grant College Act
Term
Hatch Act
Definition
-created state Ag experiment station
-supposed to give pay to college professors to do ag research
Term
# of people fed per farmer in 1900
Definition
7
Term
# of people fed per farmer in 1980
Definition
60
Term
# of people fed per farmer in 2010
Definition
~100
Term
fed gov encouraged this out west
Definition
settlement
Term
how the fed gov encouraged settlement out west
Definition
-had to encourage a road system
-land was subdivided
Term
how lots of the large farms out west were developed
Definition
strategy where someone had access to water, but lots of others didn’t; those that had no access to water moved elsewhere, leaving the land available for someone else to get for a ridiculously cheap price
Term
amount of people in U.S. who are full-time farmers
Definition
0.5% of U.S. population
Term
how Eli Whitney got the idea of the cotton gin
Definition
got the idea while watching a cat trying to capture a chicken in a coup
Term
effect of the mechanical reaper
Definition
increased the capacity on which cereal grain crops (wheat, barley, oats) could be harvested; more efficient than by hand
Term
example of the effect of hybridization
Definition
2 corns of different varieties being bred to yield a larger hybrid variety; this led to an increase in corn yield
Term
bald eagle population since DDT ban
Definition
went up
Term
why farm productivity increased from 1880-1920
Definition
because of increased acreage
Term
in 1920, this helped improve farm productivity
Definition
gasoline engine replaced animal power; this was the first step in the technological revolution
Term
1st step in the ttechnological revolution
Definition
gasoline engine replacing animal power in 1920
Term
in 1940, this helped increase farm productivity
Definition
-hybrid corn doubled corn yields
-genetics was 2nd step
Term
in late 1940's, this helped increase farm productivity
Definition
the pesticides DDT and 2, 4-D
Term
in 1950's, this helped increase farm productivity
Definition
-irrigation
-high analysis fertilizers
Term
some ecological problems caused by increased technology for ag
Definition
-narrow application of technology geared towards short term returns was fouling our own nest (Earth)
-1960's and 1970's effect of pesticides on mammals
-1980's water pollution problems becoming evident
Term
effect of 1973 OPEC oil embargo
Definition
-oil prices rose 4x
-destabilized ag
-fertilizer and pesticides energy intensive
-profit margins narrowed temporarily
-primer for the 1980's
-1978 embargo on Soviet Union
Term
some details about American agriculture in 1980's
Definition
-fuel prices high, market prices low
-America in overproduction. Foreign producers become more efficient and compete w/ American farmer
-many farm foreclosures
-Low Input Sustainable Ag. (LISA) concept emerges
-biotechnology concept develops
Term
LISA and biotechnology are ______ strategies
Definition
divergent
Term
how foreign producers came to be in competition w/ America
Definition
-America in overproduction
-foreign producers became more efficient
Term
details about 1985 Food Security Act 1
Definition
-conservation compliance- each farm must submit a soil conservation plan
-swampbuster- draimage of land prohibited
-conservation reserve- 10 year rental of severely erodible land
Term
conservation compliance component of 1985 Food Security Act 1
Definition
each farm must submit a soil conservation plan
Term
swampbuster component of 1985 Food Security Act 1
Definition
drainage of land prohibited
Term
conservation reserve component of 1985 Food Security Act 1
Definition
10 year rental of severely erodible land
Term
some details about ag in the 1990's
Definition
-global marketing (GATT, NAFTA)
-most efficient producer wins the global market
-era of biotech implementation begins
-1995>Freedom to Farm act
Term
the pproducer that wins the global market
Definition
the most efficient producer
Term
Freedom to Farm Act passed in...
Definition
1995
Term
Freedom to Farm Act
Definition
reduced emphasis on conservation and increased emphasis on production w/o subsidized incentives. led to overproduction
Term
Freedom to Farm Act led to...
Definition
overproduction
Term
Farm Bill passed in...
Definition
1998
Term
1998 Farm Bill
Definition
govt is experimenting w/ breaking remaining trade tariffs/barriers to increase exports. problem: food is cultural in many nations (Europe)

farm prices high, govt broke- cut subsidies
Term
problem w/ 1998 Farm Bill
Definition
food is cultural in many nations (Europe)
Term
something that resulted from the 1998 Farm Bill
Definition
farm prices high, govts broke- cut subsidies
Term
2002 Food Security Act 2
Definition
-farm subsidies back in, limits per farm
-trend to small farms?
-in 2003, a major shift occurred leading to a focus on biosecurity and away from production
-challenge: find ways to rapidly detect toxins and human diseases in food supply
Term
in 2003, this occurred regarding production
Definition
a major shift occurred leading to a focus on biosecurity and away from production
Term
challenge that came with focusing on biosecurity
Definition
find ways to rapidly detect toxins and human diseases in food supply
Term
this chemical was often used to kill garden pests and dust mites in homes
Definition
chloridine
Term
the only river that was a fire hazard
Definition
the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland
Term
U.S. did this with oil during the OPEC oil embargo
Definition
started producing oil
Term
U.S. did this when Russia invaded Afghanistan
Definition
grain embargo against Russia
Term
byproduct of grain embargo against Russia
Definition
increased demand for food produced elsewhere
Term
2 divergent strategies on production
Definition
-Low Input Sustainable Agriculture approach (LISA)
-biotechnology
Term
idea of LISA
Definition
cut inputs such that input cost can go down a lot while output goes down very little, if at all
Term
what LISA turned out to be and why
Definition
turned out to be fallacy because it’s all theory
Term
the goal of price subsidies/limits
Definition
tried to force smaller farms
Term
did the system of price subsidies/limits work?
Definition
no
Term
something that our food supply is susceptible to
Definition
malicious activity that disrupts the food supply
Term
the max # of people this planet can sustain
Definition
might be 10billion
Term
how the amount of fuel could affect the price of food
Definition
less fuel could make the price of food go up
Term
the value of $1 in 1970
Definition
$1 in 1970 was worth $6 today
Term
some things about biotechnology
Definition
1: molecular markers
2: gene insertion (GMO)
Term
some GMO methods
Definition
-herbicide resistance
-Bt- insect tolerance (Bacillus Thurinsensis)
Term
how herbicide resistance in plants works
Definition
plant metabolizes herbicide before it can hurt it
Term
how Bt- insect tolerance (Bacillus Thurinsensis)
Definition
-makes the stomachs of insects leaky
-gives plant ability to produce toxin that does this
-Bt toxin binds to receptors in insect digestive tract that our digestive tract doesn’t have
Term
envoironmental impact of Bt
Definition
environmentally benign and harmless to us
Term
organic form of Bt
Definition
Dipel
Term
Dipel
Definition
organic form of Bt
Term
is there a difference between GMO and non-GMO?
Definition
about 40-50 scientific studies say there’s no difference between GMO and non-GMO
Term
how Bt kills insects
Definition
Bt toxin binds to receptors in insect digestive tract that our digestive tract doesn’t have
Term
nutrition
Definition
refers to processes of ingestion and assimilation of food
Term
nutrients
Definition
inorganic and organic substances needed to sustain maintenence and growth
Term
some inorganic nutrients
Definition
-water
-calcium
-phosphorus
-magnesium
-6 inorganic
Term
some organic nutrients
Definition
-carbohydrates (CHO)
-proteins
-lipids
-6 organic
Term
CHO and lipids used mostly for...
Definition
energy
Term
these nutrients used mostly for...
Definition
energy
Term
essential nutrients
Definition
nutrients that can't be synthesized from other dietary components
Term
examples of essential nutrients
Definition
-some amino acids
-most vitamins
Term
what amino acids are used for
Definition
building blocks of protein
Term
carbohydrates made of...
Definition
C, H, and O
Term
some types of carbohydrates
Definition
-sugars
-starch
-cellulose
Term
sugars
Definition
simple carbohydrates
Term
starch
Definition
linear glucose chain that's used as plant storage and is soluble
Term
cellulose
Definition
linear glucose chain used to make the cell wall and is insoluble and indigestible
Term
α 1-4 helix of starch
Definition
[image]
Term
β 1-6 linkage of starch
Definition
[image]
Term
how starch is actually stored
Definition
as granules
Term
what starch would resemble if you were to look at the starch crystals
Definition
the "pinwheel" seen here[image]
Term
fiber β 1-4 linkages in cellulose
Definition
[image]
Term
what cellulose looks like under the microscope
Definition
[image]
Term
difference between starch and cellulose
Definition
starch- amylose+amylopectin (we need clarification on this)
Term
these carbohydrates are highly digestible and yield energy when digested
Definition
-starch
-sugars
Term
this carbohydrate is part of fiber, highly absorbent, and non-digestible
Definition
cellulose
Term
some details about cellulose
Definition
-part of fiber
-highly absorbent
-non-digestible
Term
this carbohydrate is important for the reduction of colon cancer
Definition
cellulose
Term
why carbohydrates are non-essential nutrients
Definition
because energy can be derived from either protein or fat
Term
some details about fats aka lipids
Definition
-also contain C, H, and O, but O contains a lot less O
-like starches, fats are energy storage compounds in plants
Term
amount of calories that come from fat in U.S.
Definition
35-40%
Term
amount of calories that come from fat worldwide
Definition
20%
Term
health problems fats contribute to
Definition
cholesterol and heart disease
Term
the most abundanbt substance in our dry weight, that is, weight excluding water
Definition
protein, which is about 50% of our dry weight
Term
beefsteak is ______% protein
Definition
47%
Term
milk is ______% protein
Definition
27%
Term
eggs are ______% protein
Definition
50%
Term
this many amino acids found in protein
Definition
book says 20
Term
of the 20 amino acids the book says are in protein, how many are essential nutrients to humans?
Definition
10
Term
structure of proteins
Definition
extremely complex and are held together by peptide bonds between COOH and NH2 (amino)
Term
typical molecular weight of proteins
Definition
27,500
Term
MW ovalbium (egg protein)
Definition
45,000
Term
MW glucose
Definition
186
Term
MW cellulose
Definition
5,000
Term
which proteins have greater biological value? plant or animal?
Definition
animal
Term
why does animal protein have greater biological value?
Definition
more essential amino acids
Term
why energy is a major concern for human nutrition
Definition
because lack of energy leads to starvation
Term
the trend in caloric needs per lb with age
Definition
decreases as you get older except for pregnant and lactating women
Term
the trend in caloric need for gender
Definition
men tend to need more calories
Term
some factore our caloric needs are dependent on
Definition
1: age
2: sex
3: body weight
4: physioloical condition (women)
Term
the primary concern for traditional crop scientists
Definition
to create energy for consumption
Term
other farm enterprises, such as spice and turf, are associated wiith...
Definition
esthetics
Term
average daily consumption of modern man
Definition
243,000 kcal
Term
average daily consumption of primitive man
Definition
12,000 kcal
Term
why modern man has 20X the energy consumption of primitive man
Definition
because primitive man was more concerned about food and modern man is concerned about food, fuel, and other things that use energy
Term
world total carbon consumption
Definition
0.5 billion metric tons
Term
Because we are so inefficient, we need to produce ______ tons of carbon
Definition
4.1 billion
Term
agriculture is a system of...
Definition
exploiting p'synthesis and converting it into a useable form
Term
biomass of a plant community
Definition
total dry organic matter of a plant community
Term
amount of the total energy from the sun that is used for p'synth
Definition
only about 1-2%
Term
other uses for the sun's energy that makes it to the plant
Definition
-evaporation and transpiration (40%)
-reflection (5%)
-long wave re-radiation (50%)
Term
amount of sunlight that reaches Earth's atmosphere
Definition
263,000 langleys
Term
amount of sunlight that gets absorbed or reflected
Definition
123,000 langleys
Term
amount of sunlight that reaches Earth's surface
Definition
140,000 langleys
Term
1 langley=
Definition
1 calorie/cm2
Term
the energy from the sun in 1 square meter
Definition
1 sq. meter=10,000 calories=10 kcal=10 Cal
Term
the amount of people per acre we would be able to feed if we were efficient at capturing all energy supplied by p'synth
Definition
2350 people/acre
Term
the range of visible light
Definition
about 400-750 nm
Term
energy put into making glucose and energy released from glucose
Definition
it takes 3,000kcal to make 1 mol of glucose, but only 673 kcal are released per mol of glucose
Term
how we get energy from glucose
Definition
when we digest it, the H atoms get cleaved off of there and release energy
Term
amylose
Definition
[image]
Term
amylopectin
Definition
[image]
Term
the type of bond between monomers in starches such as amylose and amylopectin
Definition
ester bonds
Term
types of starches
Definition
-amylose
-amylopectin
Term
why the starch molecule as a whole has a helical shape
Definition
because of angles in the bonds
Term
this starch fills in the empty spaces
Definition
amylopectin
Term
this starch is in a helical coil
Definition
amylose
Term
how starch is synthesized
Definition
by making polymers of glucose; this can be hundreds of units long
Term
the difference between alpha and beta linkages
Definition
beta linkages have an alternation of configuration
Term
the kind of linkaages in cellulose
Definition
beta linkages
Term
the bonds in cellulose we can't digest
Definition
the hydrogen bonds
Term
this holds the chains of cellulose together
Definition
hydrogen bonds
Term
this polysaccharide can be found between layers of cellulose in the cell wall
Definition
hemicellulose
Term
why hemicellulose is so hard to digest
Definition
because there’s hundreds of bonds, each of which requires a specific enzyme; furthermore, it has to be in a specific order
Term
anatomy of a cellulose fiber
Definition
[image]
Term
saturated and unsaturated fats
Definition
[image]
Term
how unsat fat is used in plants
Definition
in plants, sat lipids are used as a waxy cover to conserve water
Term
these fats not structural
Definition
unsat
Term
the only place where sat fat is structural in plants
Definition
on leaf surfaces
Term
how our bodies can use proteins
Definition
our bodies can digest proteins and reassemble them into things we need
Term
plants tend to be rich in these amino acids
Definition
amino acids that we can't make
Term
the balance of amino acids in animal meat compared to the balance of proteins in us
Definition
the balance of the amino acids in animal meat is similar to the balance of proteins in us
Term
how much of our corn goes to animal feed?
Definition
about 45%
Term
primary concern of crop scientists
Definition
produce energy
Term
secondary (?) concern of crop scientists
Definition
aesthetics (ornamental crops, turfgrass, etc.)
Term
much of modern man's energy consumption is based on...
Definition
fossil fuels
Term
some things that make our system so inefficient
Definition
-lotta waste, such as rotting/spoilage, unpalatable
-use, such as product uses other than food, such as animal feed; food not going into direct consumption
-pests, such as insects and diseases (we have control over this)
-harvest index; can’t use whole plant
-stresses (we have control over this)
-weeds (we have control over this)
Term
harvest index
Definition
the dry matter we harvest off of the plant and utilize
Term
one effective way to break up pest life cycles
Definition
crop life cycles
Term
different vegetative communities vary in their capacity to do this
Definition
produce biomass
Term
distribution of energy that hits leaf
Definition
that leaf can capture only about 1% of the energy hitting that leaf surface; 19% reflected away and 80% dissipated as heat
Term
what would happen if the plant couldn't dissipate energy
Definition
it would basically fry like an egg
Term
how a plant dissipates heat
Definition
evapotranspiration
Term
chart showing how much of each wavelength plant leaves absorb
Definition
[image]
Term
why potatoes are kinda problematic
Definition
because we have a hard time storing them
Term
the average age of a farmer
Definition
57 yrs old
Term
crop production begins with...
Definition
the soil
Term
importance of a soil to a mining engineer
Definition
that which overlays rocks to be mined or quarried
Term
importance of a soil to a highway engineer
Definition
material on which a road bed is to be placed
Term
importance of a soil to a farmer
Definition
a habitat for plants
Term
why we as agronomists/agriculturalists are interested in soil
Definition
we're interested in its biological value and its physical qualities
Term
the 4 major components of a soil
Definition
-minerals
-organic matter
-water
-air
Term
the typical composition of topsoils
Definition
normally contain about 50% pore space, 45-49% mineral, and 1-5% organic matter
Term
the typical composition of subsoils
Definition
less pore space and organic matter, more mineral
Term
this occupies the pore space in soil
Definition
air and water (50% air and 50% water)
Term
the volume of air and water in soil
Definition
both are 25% each, each taking up 50% of the pore space

this varies with rainfall
Term
where the rocks in soils come from
Definition
they are remnants of massive rocks
Term
how minerals are derived from rocks
Definition
thru weathering
Term
the size of stone and gravel particles
Definition
>2 mm
Term
the size of sand particles
Definition
0.05-2 mm
Term
the size of silt particles
Definition
0.002-0.05 mm
Term
the size of clay particles
Definition
<0.002 mm
Term
how clay particles behave when mixed in with liquid
Definition
become suspended to make colloids
Term
primary minerals
Definition
-don't change much as a result of chemical weathering
-primary minerals are the coarse fragments of soils

examples: silica (sand) and feldspar ("fool's gold" or mica)
Term
which minerals comprise the coarse fractions of soil?
Definition
primary
Term
secondary minerals
Definition
these minerals comprise the fine particles (clays) of soils

examples: silicate clays, Fe and Al oxides
Term
which minerals comprise the fine fractions of soil?
Definition
secondary
Term
soil organic matter
Definition
accumulation of decaying plant and animal residues
Term
what soil microbes do to soil organic matter
Definition
break it down
Term
how soil organic matter is a constantly changing system
Definition
plant residues are constantly added while microbes decompose
Term
amount of soil organic matter in soil
Definition
1-5% by weight
Term
some things soil organic matter does to soil
Definition
-makes it friable (loose and granular) because it makes clay colloids aggregate; therefore, many small particles become larger ones
-makes soil hold water because it is so absorbent
Term
friable
Definition
loose and granular
Term
how soil organic matter makes soil friable
Definition
by making clay colloids aggregate
Term
why soil organic matter makes soil hold water
Definition
because it's so absorbent
Term
2 components of coil organic matter
Definition
-partially decomposed tissue
-humus
Term
humus
Definition
(highly decomposed) holds lots of water and nutrients

therefore, only small amount of humus needed to change chemical and physical properties of soil
Term
why only a small amount of humus is needed to change chemical and physical properties of soil
Definition
because it holds lots of water and nutrients
Term
2 important concepts for soil water
Definition
-water held within soil pores and depending on pore size may or may not be available to the plant
-Salts dissolve in soil and those which are in the solution are important for plant nutrition. The ions are in constant equilibrium with the exchange sites on soil particles.
Term
2 important concepts for soil air
Definition
-soil air is not continuous, but is in a maze separated by soil particles -compared to atmosphere, soil is higher in CO2, higher in humidity, and lower in O2
Term
CO2 content of air
Definition
300ppm
Term
CO2 content of soil
Definition
6000ppm
Term
O2 content of air
Definition
10-12%
Term
O2 content of soil
Definition
2%
Term
because of low O2, this happens to soils with lots of fine pore spaces
Definition
poorly aerated and roots don't thrive
Term
how soils are classified
Definition
based on the way soils are formed, they are classified into major groups that have specific properties and best uses
Term
residual soil
Definition
formed in place
Term
how residual soil is formed
Definition
-develops by weathering of underlying rock
Term
types of weathering
Definition
-physical
-chemical
Term
types of physical weathering
Definition
-running water
-freezing and thawing
-root pressures
Term
types of chemical weathering
Definition
-organic acids produced by lichens and mosses
-root exudates dissolve small amounts of mineral
Term
what residual soils in the Piedmont are made from
Definition
residual soils from igneous rocks (granite)
Term
what residual soils in mountains are made from
Definition
residual soils from sedimentary rock (limestone)
Term
transported soils
Definition
soils that originate in one place, but are carried to nother places
Term
mechanisms of carrying soil
Definition
-water- primary method; alluvial soils
-wind- loess soils
Term
alluvial soils
Definition
carried by water
Term
loess soils
Definition
carried by wind
Term
Coastal Plain soil formed from...
Definition
marine action (old beach)
Term
distribution of certain soil orders in the United States
Definition
see p. 21
Term
geologic regions of Georgia
Definition
see p. 21
Term
description of Blue Ridge in Georgia
Definition
metamorphic residuum; sloping to steep; udults
Term
description of Appalachian Valley and Ridge in Georgia
Definition
sedimentary residuum; steep ridges and narrow valleys; udults, ochrepts
Term
description of Piedmont in Georgia
Definition
acid crystalline residuum; broad rolling hills dissected by streams; udults
Term
description of Sand Hills in Georgia
Definition
ancient aeolian dunes and marine deposits; rolling to steep; psammments, udults
Term
description of Southern Coastal Plain in Georgia
Definition
old sandy and clayey marine deposits; rolling to level; udults, psamments, aquults
Term
description of Atlantic Coast Flatwoods in Georgia
Definition
old to recent marine sands and clays; level; aquults, psamments, aquods, saprists
Term
the soil provinces of Georgia
Definition
-Blue Ridge
-Appalachian Valley and Ridge
-Piedmont
-Sand Hills
-Southern Coastal Plain
-Atlantic Coast Flatwoods
Term
soil profile
Definition
set of horizons in a given soil
Term
horizons in a soil develop because of...
Definition
1: parent material
2: climate
3: topography
Term
types of horizons in Georgia soil
Definition
O
A
B
C
R
Term
O horizon
Definition
organic deposits from litter on top of soil
Term
A horizon
Definition
-topsoil w/ organic matter
-dark, high nutrient content, where roots are most prolific, usually 2-4" (some soils have an organic layer on top)
Term
B horizon
Definition
-zone of illuviation-- fine particles from A are deposited into B
-high in Fe and Al oxides
--red color
-acidic, low in nutrients
Term
breaking down the word illuviation
Definition
il=in
luv=washed
Term
C horizon
Definition
unconsolidated crumbly rocks and newly formed soil
Term
R horizon
Definition
bedrock-- in Piedmont, thisd may be 50' deep, but it's often shallow on hilltops
Term
the 2 main physical properties of soil
Definition
-texture
-structure
Term
texture
Definition
size of particles in soil
Term
structure
Definition
ability of particles to aggregate
Term
some details about coarse particles like sand, gravel, and stones
Definition
-irregular
-don't come into close contact with each other
-consequently, the spaces between them are large and water can pass thru the macropores easily
Term
why soils with large amounts of sand and gravel have good drainage and low water holding capacity
Definition
because they have large pores
Term
some details about silt
Definition
-has an irregular shape like sand, but the particles are much smaller
-has clay surface coating and will stick together, but by itself is a poor soil
-has fine pore spaces which give it good water holding capacity, but air movement is poor
Term
some details about clay
Definition
-has regular shape and is extremely fine
-clays are plate-like and are easy to mold and have a sticky feeling
-have extremely small pores (micropores) thru which water and air move slowly
Term
relationship between particle size, surface area, and pore space
Definition
as particle size decreases, surface area and pore space increase
Term
surface area of sand
Definition
0.1 m2/g
Term
surface area of silt
Definition
1 m2/g
Term
surface area of clay
Definition
10-1,000 m2/g
Term
relationship between surface area and water holding capacity
Definition
as surface area increases, water holding capacity increases because of capillary action and adhesion
Term
why water holding capacity increases with increased surface area
Definition
because of capillary action and adhesion
Term
bulk density
Definition
the mass of a unit of dry soil
Term
bulk density is a result of...
Definition
both solids and pores

therefore, high BD means little pore space and low BD means lots of pore space
Term
why sandy soils have high BD
Definition
because of less pore space
Term
somethinbg that can cause soils to become compacted and have high BD
Definition
machinery or animal traffic
Term
why soils w/ high OM have lower BD
Definition
because of aggregation and increases in macropore space
Term
why root penetration is difficult in higher BD clay soils
Definition
because the soil pores are so small
Term
the best way to reduce BD
Definition
to incorporate OM
Term
how OM decreases BD
Definition
by aggregation and development of macropores
Term
chart showing how much of each wavelength plant leaves absorb
Definition
[image]
Term
why potatoes are kinda problematic
Definition
because we have a hard time storing them
Term
solum
Definition
the A and B horizons
Term
what tillage does to pore space of soil
Definition
reduces macropores and increases micropores
Term
solum
Definition
the A and B horizons
Term
what tillage does to pore space of soil
Definition
reduces macropores and increases micropores
Term
surface area of clay
Definition
10-1,000 m2/g
Term
surface area of clay
Definition
10-1,000 m2/g
Term
a good soil has a balance of...
Definition
sand, silt, clay, and organic matter
Term
why it's important for soils to have a mix of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter
Definition
any one of these components by themselves make poor soilsbut a mix of them makes a good soil
Term
physical reasons to have a mix of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter in the soil
Definition
-balance micro and macro pores
-needed for water permeation and holding
Term
chemical reasons to have a mix of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter
Definition
soil can receive, hold, and meter nutrients to a plant
Term
soil structure
Definition
ability of particles to aggregate
Term
2 important processes in soil structure
Definition
-those responsib;le for forming aggregates
-those responsib;le for holding aggregates together (stability)
Term
stability
Definition
aggregates being held together
Term
this encourages aggregation in soil
Definition
any action which develops lines of weakness within a soil
Term
factors which promote aggregation
Definition
-wetting/drying
-freezing/thawing
-root growth, animal burrowing
-decaying O.M./fungi and bacteria-- MAJOR FACTOR
-cations-- nutrients added by man
Term
what tillage doies to soil aggregates
Definition
destroys tyhem
Term
how roots contribute to soil aggregation
Definition
-penetrating soil, causing physical disturbance and fracturing of a soil mass
-roots decompose
-a byproduct of the decomposition is humus
Term
this happens to decomposed plant roots
Definition
-most of the decomposition results as evolution of CO2 and H2O by soil microbes -small amount of O.M. is resistant to decomposition and leaves a sticky residue called humus
Term
how huymus contributes to aggregation
Definition
Humus has electrochemical properties which react with clays and cement clay particles together, resulting in the formation of aggregates, which increases the proportion of macromolecules (Isn't it supposed to say macropores?) in clay fractions.
Term
3 major factors of aggregate stability
Definition
1: mechanical binding
2: temporary cementing
3: permanent cementing
Term
mechanical binding
Definition
done by...
-fungi and bacteria
-fresh O.M.
Term
temporary cementing
Definition
done by gums from microbe exudates
Term
permanent binding
Definition
done by humus
Term
the role of Ca2+, Mg2+, and Al3+ in aggregation
Definition
act as bridges between clay-humus-clay particles, since clay and humus both have negative charges
Term
shape of clays
Definition
-clays are actually flat crystals which are laminated together- flakes
-some are hexagonal crystals and others are irregular in shape
-some have smooth edges and others have frayed or fluffy edges

therefore, clays have not only external surfaces, but also internal surfaces
Term
internal surfaces in clays
Definition
between plates or flakes
Term
why there's a tremendous surface area in clay soils
Definition
becasuse of the surface area between plates or flakes
Term
1 acre furrow slice
Definition
6" deep X 1 acre
Term
general classes of clays
Definition
-silicate clays
-hydrous oxide clays
Term
silicate clays occur in...
Definition
temperate regions
Term
hydrous oxide clays occur in...
Definition
-tropical regions
-interspersed temperate
-high rainfall
Term
composition of silicate clays
Definition
each flake made up of silica tetrahedral and alumina octahedral
Term
silica tetrahedral
Definition
silicon atom with 4 oxygen atoms
Term
alumina octahedral
Definition
aluminum atom with 6 oxygen atoms
Term
silicate clays are arranged differently depending on...
Definition
type of soil
Term
why different clay soils have different properties
Definition
the silicate clays are arranged differently depending on soil type
Term
the arrangement of silicate clays is based upon...
Definition
the proportion of one to another and the cations in between each flake
Term
charge on the surface of flakes of silicate clays
Definition
negative, such that it can hold on to cations
Term
the nutrients necessary for plant growth
Definition
-calcium
-potassium
-magnesium
Term
this determines the type of clay
Definition
arrangement of silica tetrahedrons and alumina octahedron
Term
types of silicate clays
Definition
-1:1
-2:1
Term
composition of 1:1 clays
Definition
-1 silica tetrad
-1 alumina octahedron
Term
composition of 2:1 clays
Definition
1 alumina tetrahedron sandwiched between 2 silica tetrahedrons per flake
Term
some characteristics of 1:1 clays
Definition
-strong H+ bonds hold flakes together, making it hard for other cations (nutrients) to attach -therefore, soils high in 1:1 clays, such as kaolinite, have low fertility and low cation exchange capacity (2-15 meq/100g)
Term
why soils high in 1:1 clays, such as kaolinite, have low fertility and low cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Definition
because the sheets are held together by strong H+ bonds such that the spaces between them are too small for other cations (nutrients) to get in there
Term
the clays that are expanding clays
Definition
2:1 clays
Term
how flakes of 2:1 clays are held together
Definition
held together by weak bonds to various cations, such as Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, H+, and Al3+
Term
cation exchange capacity (CEC) of 2:1 clays
Definition
80-100 meq/100g
Term
why the strength of the association between the flakes of 2:1 minerals is weak
Definition
different spaces between flakes caused by different cations
Term
each cation in a 2:1 clay mineral attempts to...
Definition
hydrate
Term
what a cation does when it hydrates
Definition
acts as a nucleating agent to which water will surround
Term
why 2:1 expanding clays can absorb a lot of water
Definition
-weak associations between sheets
-cations attempting to hydrate

when wet, they swell and when dry, they shrink
Term
examples of 2:1 clay minerals
Definition
-montmorillonite
-illite
Term
what hydrated ions do in between the sheets in montmorillonite
Definition
expand the latices
Term
a difference between montmorillonite and illite
Definition
-montmorillonite has plenty of space between sheets such that various cations can get in there
-the space between the sheets in illite is small enough to where hydrogen and potassium can get in there, but other cations can't
Term
Cation Exchange Capacity of montmorillonite
Definition
80-100 meq/100g
Term
cation exchange capacity (CEC) of illite
Definition
15-40 meq/100g
Term
this keeps lattices apartn in montmorillonite
Definition
large ions
Term
structure of hydrous oxides
Definition
little known about crystalline structure
Term
composition of hydrous oxides
Definition
made up of Fe and Al hydroxides
Term
charge on hydrous oxides
Definition
very few negative charges on clay
Term
cation exchange capacity (CEC) of hydrous oxides
Definition
extremely low (1-2 meq/100g)
Term
why bthe CEC on hydrous oxides is extremely low
Definition
very few negative charges on clay
Term
water holding capacity of hydrous oxides
Definition
low
Term
color of hydrous oxides
Definition
yellow/orange or red in color
Term
composition of typical Georgia soil (sandy clays)
Definition
<1% OM
50% sand
20% silt
29% clay
Term
most of the clay in Georgia soil is...
Definition
kaolinite or hydrous oxide
Term
why typical Georgia soil has low CEC and low water holding capacity
Definition
because most of the clay is kaolinite or hydrous oxide
Term
what the low CEC and low water holding capacity of typical Georgia soil makes these actions necessary
Definition
-multiple applications of fertilizer
-frequent light irrigation
Term
the best way to improve soil
Definition
adding OM
Term
composition of typical Illinois soil (clay loam)
Definition
2-6% organic matter
10% sand
40% silt
45% clay
Term
composition of typical Illinois clay
Definition
1-2% kaolinite
60% montmorillonite
35-38% illite
0% hydrous oxides
Term
why typical Illinois soil has high CEC and high water holding capacity
Definition
because of all the montmorillonite
Term
because of the high CEC and high water holding capacity of typical Illinois soil, not much of this is needed
Definition
-application of nutrients
-irrigation
Term
how water behaves relating to pH
Definition
water dissociates into H+ and OH-
Term
pH=
Definition
=log(1/[H+]) =-log[H+]
Term
[H+] x [OH-]=
Definition
10-14
Term
pH of pure hydrogen
Definition
0
Term
pH of pure hydronium
Definition
14
Term
pH of equal concentration of H+ and OH-
Definition
7
Term
whyb soils in humid regions become acidic
Definition
because H+ gets on the exchange sites; get concentrated within water at the soil particle surface
Term
pH of Georgia native soils
Definition
5.0-5.5
Term
pH of Illinois farmland soil
Definition
6.0
Term
pH of Wyoming desert soil
Definition
8.0-8.5
Term
how pH can have a direct effect on plant nutrition
Definition
causes plant root membranes to fragment and become leaky, causing plant death

uncommon in cropping situations
Term
how pH can have an indirect effect on plant nutrition
Definition
availability of nutrients either becomes limiting and causes starving of some required nutrients, or makes others so soluble and available that they become toxic
Term
some elements that can be of reduced availability at pH 8
Definition
-Fe
-Mg
-Zn
Term
some nutrients that can become toxic at pH 5
Definition
-Al
-Fe
-Mn
Term
what liming does to soil
Definition
supplies an abundance of Ca2+ to soil, which displaces H+
Term
the reactions that happen when you lime soil
Definition
CaCO3-->Ca2++CO32- 2H++CO32--->H2CO3 (bicarbonate)
Term
why pH must be corrected BEFORE fertilization
Definition
because fertilizer can displace Ca2+ on colloid easier than it could H+
Term
what the amount of lime to apply depends on
Definition
surface and subsoil conditions
Term
surface conditions that factor in to how much lime to apply
Definition
pH, texture/structure, and OM
Term
subsoil conditions that factor in to how much lime to apply
Definition
pH and texture/structure
Term
how texture and OM factor in to how much lime to apply
Definition
tells us the adsorbtive power of soil
Term
why soils high in clay have high lime requirement to change pH
Definition
because they have more exchange sites
Term
pH if you overlime
Definition
7.5-8.0
Term
things that can happen as a result of overliming
Definition
-defficiencies of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn
-reduced phosphate availability
Term
why overliming becomes a management nightmare
Definition
-sulfur has to be added to drive pH down
-too much sulfur results in low pH, resulting in farmer being in a vicious cycle to adjust the pH
Term
this pH promotes availability of nutrients to plants
Definition
6-7
Term
if pH is suitably adjusted for this, then other nutrients will be available if present in adequate amounts
Definition
phosphorous availability
Term
amount of organic matter in soil vs. amount of lime needed
Definition
the higher the organic matter content, the more lime that is needed
Term
CEC vs. amount of lime needed
Definition
the higher the CEC, the more lime is needed
Term
how many mineral nutrients are essential for crop growth
Definition
13
Term
the non-mineral nutrients that are needed for crop growth
Definition
-C
-H
-O
Term
where plants obtain C, H, and O
Definition
water and atmosphere
Term
major mineral elements
Definition
required in relativcely large concentrations by the plant (0.1-2%)
Term
the major mineral elements are...
Definition
-N
-P
-K
-Ca
-Mg
-S

6 of them
Term
minor elements
Definition
required in small concentrations to maintain normal plant growth
Term
the minor elements are...
Definition
-Fe
-B
-Mn
-Zn
-Mo
-Cu
-Co

7 of them
Term
dolomitic lime
Definition
80% CaCO3 + 20% MgCO3 supplies Ca and Mg as well as adjusting soil pH
Term
when sulfur is not needed
Definition
if soil is high in OM
Term
these are the nutrients that usually express deficiencies first and may limit plant growth
Definition
-N
-P
-K
Term
examples of organic N fertilizer
Definition
organic manure, dairy lagoons, etc
Term
why organic N fertilizers haven't been used extensively over the past 40 years
Definition
low concentration of N
Term
something good organic N applications can do
Definition
-increase soil OM
-reduce environmental pollution?
Term
some common forms of inorganic nitrogen in US
Definition
-(NH4)2SO4- 21%N (solid) (not much anymore) -NH4NO3- 33% N (solid) -urea- 42-45% N (liquid) -NH4+- 82% N (gas)
Term
(NH4)2SO4 is a byproduct of...
Definition
coke industry (steel mills)
Term
other inorganic N fertilizers are synthetics that require this for production
Definition
lots of energy (natural gas)
Term
forms of phosphorus fertilizer
Definition
-rock phosphate
-superphosphate
-ammonium phosphate
Term
rock phosphate
Definition
(mined in Florida)- Ca3(PO4)2- low solubility and availability to plants (cheap)
Term
superphosphate
Definition
Ca(H2PO4)2- made by reacting rock phosphate with sulfuric acid (expensive)
Term
ammonium phosphate
Definition
NH4PO4- react rock phosphate with pure ammonium (expensive)- lots of impurities
Term
% P2O5 of rock phosphate
Definition
25%
Term
% P2O5 of superphosphate
Definition
45%
Term
% P2O5 of ammonium phosphate
Definition
20%- also get 3% N
Term
potassium mined from...
Definition
sand deposits
Term
purity of potassium depends on...
Definition
deposit
Term
some types of potassium fertilizer
Definition
-KCL -K2SO4
Term
%K2O in KCl
Definition
48-60%
Term
%K2O in K2SO4
Definition
48-50%
Term
movement of P in soil
Definition
moves little in soil
Term
why P should be placed in thew sone of soil where root development will occur
Definition
because P moves little in soil
Term
why you can apply all the P at one time and it won't leach
Definition
because it is immobile
Term
movement of N and K in soil
Definition
get lots of vertical movement from leaching because they are extremely soluble (especially N)

follows path of water
Term
how N should be applied to meet crop needs
Definition
by using split applications
Term
movement of fertilizer can damage...
Definition
seedling crops
Term
movement of fertilizer presents a problem with...
Definition
row crops
Term
starter fertilizer planted with...
Definition
seed
Term
how fertilizer can damage seed
Definition
If there's a light rain followed by a dry period, water and fertilizer can move up, surrounding developing roots, and the salt concentration of soil water desiccates the developing roots. Therefore, placement of fertilizer is critical.
Term
fertilizing strategies for row crops
Definition
-starter fertilizer
-top dressing
Term
starter fertilizer for row crops
Definition
-solid (usually N)
-placed 2-3 inches to side and below
Term
why starter fertilizer is an efficient use
Definition
because plant is small and doesn't need a lot of fertilizer
Term
why it's important to split N fertilizer applications
Definition
because if a lot of fertilizer is applied, it leaches away from plant roots
Term
top dressing for row crops
Definition
solid or liquid (usually only N)
Term
when you need to get additional fertilizer to crops to prevent nutrient deficiently
Definition
when the crop enters rapid phase of growth
Term
do this for row crops if fertilizer needs are high
Definition
apply K, P, lime broadcast before preparing seedbed and work into soil
Term
crops that don't need N fertilizer
Definition
legumes
Term
winter grains
Definition
-wheat
-rye
-oats
-barley
Term
starter fertilizer for winter grains
Definition
-(fall) solid
-grain- usually broadcast prior to seedbed preparation- 20-40 lbs/A N in fall
-if grazed- boost to 80 lbs/A N in fall
Term
top dress for winter grains
Definition
-late February
--grain- 60-100 lbs N/A depending upon previous crop (legume vs. grain)
Term
soil testinbg permits producer to...
Definition
get insight as to potential fertility problems, allowing correction of these problems before the crop is grown
Term
in soil testing, lab analysis is based on...
Definition
producer's ability to obtain a representative sample from the field of concern
Term
tools for soil sampling
Definition
-plastic bucket
-soil probe or garden trowel
-soil sample bag
Term
how to sample soil
Definition
-push probe or trowel to a6" depth and put soil in a bucket
-do this 5-10 times for small fields/lawns and 20-50 times for large fields
-sample entire field to get representative sample
Term
taks soil sample to...
Definition
county extension office

they send it to UGA for lab analysis
Term
this soil analysis is free
Definition
routine analysis
Term
routine soil analysis
Definition
measures...
-pH
-P
-K
-Ca
-Mg

reports available lbs/A
Term
this soil analysis costs extra
Definition
special analysis
Term
special soil analysis tests for this
Definition
-Zn -Mn -B -OM -soluble salts -NO3 -NH4 -particle size (texture) -total N
Term
when extension service returns data from soil testing
Definition
2-3 days later

county office maintains a copy to build a history of your fertility practices
Term
soil tests may not be entirely accurate for this
Definition
determining how plants will respond to fertilizer
Term
the effect of amount of N applied in some crops
Definition
drastic effect
Term
how excessive N affects yield in cotton
Definition
excessive vegetative growth
Term
how excessive N affects yield in sugar beets
Definition
reduced sugar
Term
how excessive N can affect tobacco quality
Definition
too much N can result in more nicotine, making it more addictive
Term
tissue testing can be used as this for a fertility program
Definition
"fine tuning"
Term
one way to do a tissue test
Definition
removing leaf petiole
Term
how a tissue test by removing a leaf petiole is done
Definition
1: farmer/scout obtains testing kit from extension service
-in the testing kit, there's 10 minikits, 1 for each week of sampling
-sample when plants first bloom
-sample petiole the same as you would soil. walk thru field and get 20-30 petioles
2: take samples to county agent's office
-agent overnight express to soil test lab
-lab dries sample next day (day 2)
-sample is analyzed and data is reported to county agent via computer link (day 3)
3: farmer top dresses with N according to test
Term
% of soil weight taken up by minerals in north Georgia
Definition
about 98%
Term
% of soil weight taken up by minerals in south Georgia
Definition
about 99%
Term
% of soil weight taken up by minerals
Definition
95-100%
Term
% of soil weight taken up by OM
Definition
0-5% of weight
Term
air and water take up about this much of the soil volume
Definition
50%
Term
relationship between OM content and soil color
Definition
the more organic matter, the darker
Term
relationship between OM content and density
Definition
the more organic matter, the less dense
Term
a difference between soil in N. Georgia and soil in S. Georgia
Definition
soil in N. GA tends to have fair amount of clay; soil in S. GA tends to be more sandy, maybe 90%
Term
relationship between soil OM content and water holding capacity
Definition
the greater the organic matter, the greater the water holding capacity
Term
general depiction of the composition of a soil
Definition
[image]
Term
the organic matter that’s most resistant to disappearing
Definition
plant roots while the plant is still living
Term
the decayed roots serve as
Definition
a nutrient bank for microbes
Term
some nutrient cycling in the soil that involves organic matter
Definition
[image]
Term
chart showing relationship between soil texture and water content
Definition
[image]
Term
surface area of particles vs. how much water the soil will hold
Definition
the greater the surface area of the soil particles, the greater the amount of water it will hold
Term
the best combo of water holding and water drainage is at this texture
Definition
silt loam
Term
how residual soils are formed
Definition
-Formed in place
+In this case, the parent material in the C horizon goes thru chemical weathering and such
Term
rate at which soil forms
Definition
soil generally forms at 40 tons/acre/yr
Term
how root exudates contribute to chemical weathering of soil
Definition
-epidermal cells form root hair
+Root hairs have protons in there because plants naturally produce them, so plants exude protons to exchange for nutrients, thus causing chemical weathering
Term
why there's more nutrient availability out west
Definition
because of less chemical weathering
Term
how Organic acids from lichens and mosses contribute to chemical weathering of soil
Definition
Makes soil under little mats of vegetation
Term
map of soil orders in the US
Definition
[image]
Term
inceptisols sometimes just don’t have much chance for...
Definition
chemical weathering by biological means
Term
mollisols developed in...
Definition
great plains
Term
map of geologic regions in Georgia
Definition
[image]
Term
depiction of a soil profile
Definition
[image]
Term
rainfall causes fine particles to do this in the soil profile
Definition
move down the soil profile
Term
illuviation
Definition
washing down of fine particles into the soil; this leads to the development of clay-rich B horizons
Term
these soils have a high recharge rate
Definition
sandy soils
Term
some characteristics of soil in the flatwoods region
Definition
-tends to be poorly drained
-has elevated water table
-such characteristics are common in swamps
Term
some soil characteristics that are common in swamps
Definition
-tends to be poorly drained
-has elevated water table
Term
what excessive nutrients in the Cesapeake caused
Definition
lotta plankton and such and decaying life causes dead zones
Term
why inceptisols are bad for building roads
Definition
because they have montmorillonite in their B horizons, making the B horizon swell when wet and shrink when dry
Term
why there's a soil thast has a clay horizon on top of a histic horizon
Definition
because of rice farming back in the day
Term
this fungus decomposes lignin
Definition
white rot fungus
Term
soil structure
Definition
how soil particles are held together
Term
humus
Definition
what’s left over after the organic matter has rotted
Term
the role of organic matter in cementing
Definition
acts as a nucleus for cementing
Term
soil of this texture is densest
Definition
sand
Term
illuviation leads to...
Definition
the development of clay-rich B horizons
Term
what happens to plants when you have compacted B layer
Definition
limitation of growth
Term
virgin soil...
Definition
virgin soil: soil that hasn’t been disrupted
Term
tilth improves at this organic matter
Definition
high OM
Term
structure of kaolinite
Definition
[image]
Term
most of the soils we have here in Georgia are made of...
Definition
silicate clays, such as kaolinite
Term
the bonding of the alumina sheet to the silica sheet in the 1:1 layer is due to...
Definition
the surfaces coming into contact
Term
a type of soil kaolinite is found in
Definition
very weathered soils
Term
characteristics of kaolinite
Definition
-Compacted clay lattices
-Held together by H bonds (-H….OH-)
-Little movement of other ions in and out of interior surfaces
-Creates thick particles
Term
microscopic view of kaolinite
Definition
[image]
Term
shape of kaolinite particles
Definition
hexagonal; some thin and others much thicker
Term
why kaolinite has a low CEC
Definition
the only cation small enough to get in between the sheets is H+
Term
structure of montmorillonite
Definition
[image]
Term
why the sheets of montmorillonite don't really stick together
Definition
lack of H bonds
Term
some characteristics of montmorillonite
Definition
-Open clay latices
-Loosely held together by cations, water
-A lot of movement of other things in and out of interior surfaces
Term
montmorillonite found in these soils
Definition
juvenile soils
Term
microscopic view of montmorillonite
Definition
[image]
The reason it looks like this is because of all the cations that get in there
Term
whyb montmorillonite has a high CEC
Definition
because lots of cations can get in between the sheets
Term
soils high in this mineral good for no till
Definition
montmorillonite
Term
the type of 2:1 clay that expands
Definition
montmorillonite
Term
the type of 2:1 clay that doesn't expand
Definition
Illite
Term
some details about Illite
Definition
-Clay latices held together by K and H.
-Not as tight as kaolinite, but much tighter than montmorillonite
-Not much movement of other things in and out of interior surfaces
Term
Illite is found in this soil
Definition
middle aged soil
Term
microscopic photo of illite
Definition
[image]
Term
the nutrients we have the biggest problems with
Definition
-N
-P
-K
Term
pH where iron becomes a limiting nutrient
Definition
pH 6
Term
at this pH, we have Al toixicity
Definition
pH less than or equal to 5.5
Term
we have this at the tip of the root
Definition
a root cap with a meristem underneath it
Term
lots of cell division going on in this part of the root
Definition
cell division
Term
what aluminum does at too low a pH
Definition
at too low a pH, aluminum complexes with phosphate to form aluminum phosphate, which can accumulate in the rapidly dividing meristem tissue and stop the root growth
Term
availability of specific nutrients at various pH's
Definition
[image]
Term
the importance of boron
Definition
boron is important espescially from a reproductive standpoint, especially peanuts
Term
how the Great Salt Lake formed
Definition
the Great Salt Lake is what’s left over from a sea that used to exist, but the lake becomes saltier as the lake shrinks
Term
how nitrogen fertilizer is made
Definition
nitrogen fertilizer is from the Haber-Bosch process, where they take atmospheric nitrogen, atmospheric hydrogen, and can be used to synthesize NH3 (ammonia) and other N fertilizers
Term
why we now have to be prudent about our N fertilizer
Definition
we now have to be prudent about our N fertilizer, not only from the environmental standpoint, but also from the economic standpoint
Term
what happens to NH4+ in the soil
Definition
-not very mobile -rapidly converted to NO3- by soil microbes
Term
how NO3- should be applied
Definition
Apply broadcast with split applications
Term
the only form of P that's mobile
Definition
organic forms (litter, municipal waste, etc) – pH issue
Term
where to place P fertilizer at planting
Definition
in row
Term
mobility of potassium
Definition
More mobile than P but relatively immobile
Term
how to apply potassium fertilizer
Definition
Apply either broadcast or in row
Term
mobility of NH4+
Definition
mot very mobile
Term
what happens to ammonia that's made in the soil
Definition
it volitalizes into the atmosphere
Term
why N fertilizers are tricky to work with
Definition
because they’re at risk of being non-point source pollution
Term
this form of N is a heck of a lot more dangerous than ammonium nitrate
Definition
anhydrous ammonium (NH3)
Term
why P is usually immobile
Definition
because it complexes with other chemicals
Term
why K can move down the soil profile
Definition
because it gets displaced by H+
Term
some ways to fertilize row crops
Definition
-Broadcast
-Starter
-Topdressing
Term
ways to fertilize pastures
Definition
-Broadcast P & K before establishment because they’re immobile at first
-Topdress N because it’ll leach down into soil
Term
Broadcast P & K before establishment because...
Definition
they’re immobile at first
Term
Topdress N because...
Definition
it’ll leach down into soil
Term
the relationship between crop dry weight and amount of fertilizer is...
Definition
lag phase, log phase, linear phase, and then another lag phase
Term
why you put fertilizer on the side of the seed
Definition
because if it was placed directly below, the ionic activity of that fertilizer would kill the primary root

another reason: by the time the plant develops lateral roots, the fertilizer is dissipated enough such that it won’t kill the roots
Term
depiction of where the seed and the fertilizer should be placed
Definition
[image]
Term
When Should Additional Nitrogen be Added?
Definition
When the plant’s needs enter into a logarithmic increase. Legumes don’t need N because of N fixation.
Term
at some point, this happens to the nitrogen in the leabves
Definition
it gets remobilized into the new grain
Term
wheat has to go thru this to change from vegetative phase to reproductive phase
Definition
cold weather
Term
why you don't have to give N to soybeans
Definition
because they're legumes
Term
When Should Additional Potassium be Added?
Definition
Generally, Potassium is not that mobile so one application prior to planting according to soil test recommendations is sufficient
Term
When Should Additional Phosphorus be Added?
Definition
Phosphorus fertilizer (inorganic) is the least mobile of the three major nutrients, thus if fertilized correctly prior to seeding, no need for additional fertilizer
Term
Effect of soil depth on pH of Georgia farm soils
Definition
pH decreases as you go down the soil profile
Term
soil acidity can suggest this about the previous farmer
Definition
it can suggest that the previous farmer didn’t apply enough lime and fertilizer
Term
the steps of soil analysis
Definition
-Soil sampling
-Analysis (P, K, Ca, Mg, pH, Lime requirement)
-Recommendation
Term
the steps of plant analysis
Definition
-Total analyses
+Leaf sampling
+Analysis (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn)
-Tissue tests
Term
Perform at least 2 months prior to planting because...
Definition
it takes a while for the lime to dissolve and displace the H+
Term
how to sample soil
Definition
Walk across field and sample at various locations, composite sample, send to soil test lab.
Term
why you want plastic bucket for soil sample
Definition
because galvanized metal has zinc and manganese in it such that it contaminates the sample
Term
gotta do this to the soil sample before you send it
Definition
homogenize it
Term
what to do in precision agriculture as far as soil is concerned
Definition
-Extensive soil sampling and analysis
-Manage nutrients for every location in the field
Term
objectives of presicion agriculture as far as soil is concerned
Definition
- reduce nutrient runoff by managing nutrients for potential productivity of land and inherent fertility of soil (reduced environmental risk)
-Increased farm profitability
Term
this is often done to determine limiting nutrient
Definition
tissue samples
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