Term
| 70% of all arrests are _______ in 2006. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ________ have higher rates of serious crime and victimization than non-Hispanic whites but have lower rates than African Americans. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Shaw and McKay: emphasis is on the ____________ rather than _____________. |
|
Definition
| Community, individual characteristics |
|
|
Term
| Higher rates of _____________ and _______ crime for African Americans than whites. |
|
Definition
| Violent and property crime |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shaw and McKay, high rates of delinquency persisted in certain areas of Chicago over many years, regardless of population turnover. |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between immigration and crime? |
|
Definition
| Sampson, 2008: found a lower rate of violence among Mexican-Americans compared to blacks and whites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fieldwork, field notes, participant observation, in-depth interviews, issues emerge, explored in detail |
|
|
Term
| Social disorganization theory: 3 key concepts |
|
Definition
| Structural disadvantage, social disorganization, social isolation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ecological concentration of poverty, joblessness, racial segregation (disadvantaged segments are associated with more crime) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The inability of a community structure to maintain effective social controls |
|
|
Term
| Social isolation:/key theorist |
|
Definition
| little contact between disadvantaged and more advantaged areas. Key theorist: Robert Sampson |
|
|
Term
| “The basic thesis is that the macro-sociological patterns of residential inequality give rise to the social isolation and ecological concentration of the truly disadvantaged, and this in turn leads to structural barriers and cultural adaptations that undermine social organization and hence the control of crime.” |
|
Definition
| Sampson, the relationship between race/crime (social isolation theorist) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sense of coming together for the common good to solve problems |
|
|
Term
| Higher collective efficacy is associated with more ________, Higher __________ and collective efficacy are associated with ___________. |
|
Definition
| social control, social control, less crime |
|
|
Term
| Emilie Durkheim (1858-1917): what keeps a society together? |
|
Definition
| Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity: or functional interdependence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Normlessness – breakdown of social rules, people don’t know how they fit into society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An integrated society maintains a balance between social structure (approved social means or “institutionalized means”) and culture (approved culture goals or “culture goals”) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cultural goals vs. Institutionalized means |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Also emphasized structural sources of strain: Status frustration– ie, education. Lower class boys aren’t focused in the same way because they haven’t been as exposed. Status frustration leads to them joining delinquent subcultures |
|
|
Term
| Messner & Rosenfeld: macro level |
|
Definition
| Crime results from a lack of fit between culture and social structure, an overemphasis on goals of monetary success (culture) with less emphasis on approved means (social structure). |
|
|
Term
| The anomic pressures inherent in the American Dream are nourished and sustained by a distinctive “_____” dominated by the economy. |
|
Definition
| institutional balance of power |
|
|
Term
| Agnew: micro level general strain theory |
|
Definition
| people are pressured into crime by the strains they experience; or Events or conditions that are disliked by individuals |
|
|
Term
| Three major types of strains: |
|
Definition
i. Failure to achieve positively valued goals (fail to get something that they want)
ii. Removal of positively valued stimuli (lose something they love)
iii. Confrontation with negative stimuli ie treated in an aversive manner, receive something bad. |
|
|
Term
| What types of strain are most likely to cause crime? |
|
Definition
i. Seen as unjust
ii. Seen as high in magnitude
iii. Are associated with low social control
iv. Create incentive or pressure to engage in crime |
|
|
Term
| Is General Strain Theory able to explain all types of crime? |
|
Definition
| Most tested in relation to “street crimes”—larceny-theft, vandalism, etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the shape of the human skull was indicative of the personality and could be used to predict criminality (Gall, 1758-1828) |
|
|
Term
| Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909 |
|
Definition
| ATAVISM (throwback to a more primitive state); Prisoners looked more like primitive men than modern men – long arms, large skulls, hairy bodies...birthed the idea that people are BORN criminal |
|
|
Term
| Constitutional Theories: Body types and crime (Sheldon) |
|
Definition
i. Endomorph: soft and round – relaxed & sociable
ii. Exomorph: thin, long, slender – restrained and shy
iii. Mesomorph: athletic and muscular –more likely to be involved in crime
iv. Balanced: average build |
|
|
Term
| 3 basic way individuals learn through association |
|
Definition
i. Classical conditioning – Pavlov’s dog example, response to a stimulus
ii. Operant conditioning (rewards and punishment) – B.F. Skinner, Skinner’s box
iii. Behaviorist School (expectations) – combining the ideas of operant conditioning with elements of cognitive psychology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Focus on Learning – criminals fundamentally normal people that have learned a perspective (first credible learning arg) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Differential Association Theory |
|
|
Term
| 9 Propositions of the Differential Association Theory (Sutherland) |
|
Definition
1) Criminal behavior is learned not inherited
2) Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others in a process of communication
3) The principle of learning behavior occurs within intimate personal groups
4) when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, and specific direction of motives/attitudes
5) The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from the definitions of the legal codes as favorable and unfavorable
6) The heart of S. theory: A PERSON BECOMES DELINQUENT BECAUSE OF AN EXCESS OF DEFINITIONS FAVORABLE TO VIOLATIONS OF THE LAW OVER DEFINITIONS UNFAVORABLE TO VIOLATIONS OF THE LAW. *****
7) Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.
8) The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
9) While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, because non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. |
|
|
Term
| George Herbert mead (Content/Process) |
|
Definition
Content: of what is learned includes specific techniques for committing crimes and attitudes/definitions favorable to law violation. IE, what matters is not the situation itself, but how you percieve it.
Process: by which learning takes place involves associations with other people in intimate personal groups. |
|
|
Term
| Aker - Differential Reinforcement |
|
Definition
| Actual or anticipated consequences of a given behavior |
|
|
Term
| Contribution of Social Learning Theory |
|
Definition
Sutherlands theory was responsible for the view that crime is the result of environmental influences acting on "normal" individuals
Speaking against theories at the time that suggested criminal behavior is due to biological abnormalties |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Criminal behavior is "normal" learned behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| You must neutralize thoughts of guilt and shame to engage in deviant behavior |
|
|
Term
| 5 techniques of Neutralization (Sykes and Matza, 1957) |
|
Definition
1) Denial of Responsibility
2) Denial of injury (no one will be hurt)
3) Denial of victim (they deserve it)
4) Condemnation of condemners (questioning authority)
5) Appealing to higher loyalties (survival sex) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Research on theft of supplies and medicines by hospital nurses; qualitative study that links neutralization theory with differential association theory/social learning theory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Convicted Rapists' Vocabulary of Motives:
-Rape as a learned behavior
-Excuses/ "Admitters": admit the act was bad/inappropriate but deny responsibility
-Justifications/ "Deniers": accept responsibility but deny it was wrong in that particular instince
-Accounts: socially approved vocabularies that neutralize an act; involves negotiation of identity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Concept of drift - start neutralizing moral and conventional values in a traditional world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A state of limbo in which youths move in and out of delinquency and in their lifestyles embrace both conventional and deviant values. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Loosening of social controls and beliefs |
|
|
Term
| Travis Hirschi (1969) (Control Theory) |
|
Definition
| Social Bonding Theory -- if you are bonded to someone you are less likely to commit crime; delinquent acts occur when an individual's bond to society is weak or broken |
|
|
Term
| Elements of Social Bonds (4) |
|
Definition
1) Attachment ****
2) Commitment (stake in conformity)
3) Involvement (in conventional activities)
4) Belief (endorsement of social values/norms) |
|
|
Term
| Strength of Hirschi's theory |
|
Definition
| Clearly able to be tested systematically |
|
|
Term
| Limitations of Hirschi's theory |
|
Definition
| Failing to take into account who the attachment is to |
|
|
Term
| Self-Control Theory -- Gottfredson & Hirschi |
|
Definition
| Self control that is instilled before age 8 determines crime in later life, very simple idea. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tautology (needless repetition, true by virtue of it's logival form) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Test assumptions of theory with empirical research, theories making predictions inconsistent with the data are falsified. |
|
|
Term
| The debate: Integrate vs. Falsification (Bernard) |
|
Definition
Elliot: early integration of strain, control, and learning theories
Hirschi: combining strain and control theories is illogical and contradictory
Elliot: any theory can account for 10-20% of the deviant variance in behavior |
|
|
Term
| Is traditional approach to competing distinct theories pointless (elliot)? |
|
Definition
Yes- there are multiple causes of crime
No - blending theories compromises original constructs and ignores competing assumptions behind the theories (Hirschi) |
|
|
Term
| Approaches to theoretical integration |
|
Definition
| Combine variables from different theories into a model to most fully explain crime and deviance OR offer new theoretical concept that organized the arguments of a number of other theories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Criminologists should focus on the variables rather than the theories themselves
Criminological theories should be evaluated in their usefulness to the scientific process, not in terms of their validity.
Criminological researchers should shift from trying to falsify theories to focus on a risk factor approach (structured possibilities) |
|
|
Term
| Bernard & Snipes classify theories in terms of |
|
Definition
| Location of independent variation and direction of causation (policy implications) or "individual difference theories" and "structure/process theories" |
|
|
Term
| Thornberry: Interactional Theory (Reciprocal) |
|
Definition
Model assumes a fundamental cause of delinquency is the weakening of social controls over the conduct of an individual
Reciprocal effect: one cause affects the other, and both affect the original thing
Controls do not direcly lead to deviance |
|
|
Term
| What is social support? (Lin) |
|
Definition
| Lin: “The perceived or actual instrumental or expressive provisions supplied by the community, social networks, and confiding partners.” |
|
|
Term
| Cullen Theory of Social Support |
|
Definition
| Various theories make the role of social support explicit; ie Cullen's integration theory achieved a different way: by elaborating role of social support drawing on various theories. |
|
|
Term
| How is social support related to crime, macro-level? |
|
Definition
| Some societies and communities may have higher rates of crime due to less support. |
|
|
Term
| How is social support related to crime, micro-level? |
|
Definition
| micro-level, more support a family provides, the less likely that person will be involved in crime. Suggests providing supports to families |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Crime: behavior commited by minority groups whose regular actions and goals have not been secured by legislative processes. (Those who reject majority view tend to be criminalized.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Example of how elite/ruling class can get their interest represented in law |
|
|
Term
| The American Dream exerts pressures toward crime by encouraging an |
|
Definition
| anomic cultural environment. |
|
|
Term
| The anomic pressures inherent in the American Dream are nourished and sustained by a distinctive |
|
Definition
| “institutional balance of power” |
|
|
Term
| The interplay between the core cultural commitments of the American Dream and the institutional balance of power results in ______, _________, _______ |
|
Definition
| widespread anomie, weak social controls, and ultimately high levels of crime. |
|
|
Term
| What is the connection between early childhood factors and later adult behaviors? |
|
Definition
1. Stability (self-control theory)
2. Stability and Change (life-course theory) |
|
|
Term
| 2 Types of Continuity (stability) |
|
Definition
Homotypic (same behavior over time) delinquency at time 1 predicts delinquency at time 2
Heterotypic (deviance is associated with deviance but the form changes, for example delinquency may predict excessive drinking)
IE, same type to different type |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| has to do with your relationships-the more quality ties you have with others around you/social networks, the more powerful you will be in social capital; can help you in life, such as finding a job |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
change in crime and delinquency; it is a turning point in transition or pathway of (away from) crime.
-Abrupt: military
-Gradual: mutual investment process |
|
|
Term
| Social Bonding/Control Theory Thesis |
|
Definition
| While continuity in deviant behavior exists, social ties in adulthood, to work, family and community, explain changes in criminality over the life span. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pathway or line of development over the life span. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specific life events that are embedded in trajectories and take place over a shorter time period. (EX. First job or first marriage) These have the ability to change your trajectory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Job Stability, Commitment to Occupational Goals, and Attachment to Spouse
-Quantitative analysis of all men in delinquent sample, found job stability protects against various forms of adult deviance (ages 17-25).
-Quantitative analysis of ever-married men in delinquent sample found attachment to spouse had stronger protective effect than job stability.
-Quantitative analyses of non-delinquent men, job stability protects (decreases) deviance and excessive drinking in early adulthood.
-Quantitative analyses show among non-delinquent ever married men that attachment to spouse is again protective against adult deviance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Common elements of turning points |
|
Definition
1. “Knifing off” the past from the present.
2. Provision of supervision and monitoring but also opportunities for social support and growth.
3. Bring change and structure to routine activities.
4. Provide an opportunity for “identity transformation.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Found that motherhood decreased delinquency but marriage did NOT.
-For drug use, BOTH motherhood and marriage decreased these outcomes. |
|
|
Term
| Labeling Theories: social meaning of deviance (1960s/70s) |
|
Definition
| Emphasis is on societal reaction to deviance; focus is on the informal and formal application of "stigmatizing" deviant labels or tags by society on some of its members. |
|
|
Term
| Two focuses of Labeling Theories |
|
Definition
Attempts to explain why certain behavior is socially defined as wrong and certain persons are selected for stigmatization (powerful imposes on powerless)
Then hypothesizes that discrediting labels cause the continuation of criminal or delinquent behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Primary deviance: individual’s behavior
Societal response
Secondary deviance: further deviant behavior that is more organized and coherent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Becker: Typology (types of deviant behavior) |
|
Definition
Obedient Behavior Percieved as Deviant: Falsely Accused
Obedient Behavior Not Percieved as Deviant: Conforming
Rule-Breaking Behavior percieved as Deviant: Pure Deviance
Rule-breaking behavior not perceived as deviant: Secret Deviant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
draws attention to role of formal and informal social control on behavior
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Theory disregards actual behavior of the deviant, the label does not create the deviance in the first place.
Other factors produce the initiation of deviance and may affect whether deviance continues.
Labeling theory ignores these other variables. |
|
|
Term
| Policy Implications (Becker) |
|
Definition
Diversion Programs:
Premise from labeling theory is that formal social control makes crime problem worse.
Better would be to minimize official processing of offenders when possible. |
|
|
Term
| Braithwaite (1989) - main question |
|
Definition
When is a criminal label likely to produce a criminal self-concept and when might it have the opposite effect?
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
