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covenant bio112 exam 3
Dr. Nelson's bio112 lab exam 3
155
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/24/2012

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Term
Sensory transduction
Definition
Incoming stimuli (chemicals or physical stimuli from an animal's body or the external environment) are conversions into neural signals.
Term
Perception
Definition
Conscious awareness of sensations. Not all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism.
Term
Sensory receptor
Definition
Recognizes stimulus and initiates signal transduction, creating gradient potential in the same or adjacent cell. Can be epithelial or neuron cells. Is response is strong enough, action potential is sent to the CNS.
Term
Mechanoreceptors
Definition
Receptor type. Transduce mechanical energy
Term
Electromagnetic receptors
Definition
detect radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Photoreceptors: response to light energy. Thermoreceptors: response to heat energy. Infrared, ultraviolet receptors, magnetic fields.
Term
Chemoreceptors
Definition
Responses to different chemicals
Term
Nociceptors (pain receptors)
Definition
respond to extreme of heat, cold, and pressure, as well as to a certain molecules like acids.
Term
Mechanoreception
Definition
Physically touching or deforming a mechanoreceptor cell opens ion channels in the plasma membrane.
Term
Stretch receptors
Definition
Stretching alters proteins in cell membrane, causing ion channels to open, and causing membrane to depolarize. Action potentials initiated, sent to the CNS. Makes you feel full.
Term
Hair cells
Definition
Specialized epithelial cells. Cilla resembles hairs. Frequency of ion channels opening or closing to do with the direction of the bending.
Term
Meissner's corpuscles
Definition
Neuron to respond to membrane changes (depolarizing). Sense, touch, and light pressure. Lie just beneath skin surface.
Term
Pacinian corpuscles
Definition
Located much deeper beneath skin surface. respond to deep pressure and vibration.
Term
Lateral line system
Definition
Hair cells detect the changes in water currents. Cillia of hair cells protrude into cupola structure within lateral line canal system. When cupola moves, villa bend, and neurotransmitter is released.
Term
Audition (Hearing)
Definition
Abililty to detect and interpret sound waves.
Term
Wavelength
Definition
distance from the peak of one sound wave to next. Lower wavelengths have lower frequencies perceived as a lower pitch.
Term
Frequency
Definition
number of complete waves in a second (Hz). Shorter wavelengths have high frequency, perceived as high pitch or tone.
Term
Outer ear
Definition
Pinna and auditory canal. Separated from middle ear by eardrum. Funnels sounds waves into middle ear.
Term
Middle ear
Definition
Ossicles (maleus, incus, and stapes( connect eardrum to oval window
Term
Inner ear
Definition
Cochlea (audition) and vestibular system, (equilibrium, balance, proprioception) Eustachian tube - connects to pharynx, equalizes pressure, between middle ear and atmospheric pressure).
Term
Proprioception
Definition
Ability to sense the position, orientation, and movement of the body. Many aquatic (shrimp) invertebrates have statocytes to send positional information.
Term
Electromagnetic sensing
Definition
Detection of radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, including those wavelengths that correspond to visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared light, as well as electrical and magnetic stimuli.
Term
Non-light electromagnetic reception examples
Definition
Fish detect electrical fields/signals from other fish. Platypus bill can detect electrical currents from prey. Homing pigeons use magnetic to accurately navigate. Pit vipers sense infrared radiation (heat) from prey.
Term
Photoreceptors
Definition
Detect photons of light arriving from the sun or other light source, or reflecting off an object.
Term
Photon
Definition
Fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle and a wave.
Term
Photoreception in Planaria
Definition
Platyhelminthes--> eye sockets are pits. Does not form visual images, just directional light. Eyecup containing endings of photoreceptor cells detect presence or absence of light. Pigment layer casts shadows, so can detect direction of light.
Term
Compound eyes of arthropods
Definition
Extremely sensitive to light movement, but not as much resolution as single-compound eye.
Term
Ommatidia and Rhabdom
Definition
Ommatidia: light detectors. Each unit makes up one facet. Lens and crystalline cone focus light onto rhabdom (transparent tube). Retinula cells surrounding the rhabdom serve as photoreceptors.
Term
Echinoderm "eyes"
Definition
Eye spots allow for light detection only.
Term
Single eye lens
Definition
Found in vertebrates, some mollusks (squid and octopus) and some snails/annelids. Light transmitted through pupil to retina at back of eye. Photorecptors trigger electrical charges in neurons.
Term
Sclera
Definition
Connective tissue surrounding eye.
Term
Cornea
Definition
Continuous with sclera but thin and clear
Term
Iris
Definition
Pigmented smooth muscle controlling size of pupil (what thames in light).
Term
Rods
Definition
Sensitive to low intensity light. Does not discriminate colors. Used mostly at night. Outer segment contains pigment. Inner segment contains cell body with nucleus.
Term
Synaptic terminal
Definition
neurotransmitter filled with vesicles fused with membrane, interact with postsynaptic neurons.
Term
Cones
Definition
Require more light for stimulation. Detect color. Fewer cones than rods in human retina.
Term
Visual pigments
Definition
Opsin protein an retinal complex. Retinal - vitamin A derivative that absorbs light energy. Opsin - Rhodopsin (red pigments) and cone pigments (humans have 3, red, green and blue, distinctive photopsins, some species have less, birds have 5.
Term
Chemoreception
Definition
Olfaction - sense of smell. Gustation - sense of taste. Chemicals bind to chemoreceptor cells, causing the release of neurotransmitter form the chemoreceptor cells. Neurotransmitters initiate electrical responses on neurons that extend axons into the brain.
Term
Olfaction in mammals
Definition
Sensitivity depends on the density of olfactory receptor cells (5 million in humans vs. 220 million in days). Only one type of odor receptor expressed per olfactory receptor cell. Olfactory bulb - binds results in action potentials being sent to this at the base of the brain. Overall smell sensation depends on which set of olfactory receptor cells are activated.
Term
Taste Buds in Mammals
Definition
Taste buds are clusters of chemosensory cells that detect particular molecules in food molecules dissolved in saliva. They are located in folds of tongue pallet. Tips of taste receptor cells in taste bud have microvilli that extend into taste pore.
Term
Skeleton
Definition
Structure or structures that serve one or more functions related to support, protection, and locomotion. Hydrostatic, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.
Term
Hydrostatic skeleton
Definition
Water-filled cavity surrounded by muscle. Water is nearly incompressible, so hydrostatic pressure can be used to extend parts of the body.
Term
Examples of hydrostatic skeleton
Definition
Cnidarians: body, tentacles can extend or retract. Echinoderms: movement of the tube feet. Earthworms: move forward by passing a wave of muscular contraction along the length of the body.
Term
Exoskeleton
Definition
External skeleton surrounding and protecting the body.
Term
Examples of exoskeleton
Definition
Arthropods - made chitin, segmented for movement, shed then to grow. Interior muscles connected to exoskeletal components for movements.
Term
Endoskeletons
Definition
Internal structures. Do not protect body surface, only internal organs and other structures. Sponges (spiculles), echinoderms (ossicles), and vertebrates.
Term
Vertebrate skeleton
Definition
2 parts: Axial - main longitutidal axis (skull, spinal column, ribs). Appendicular - limb bones and girdles.
Term
Joint
Definition
Formed where 2 or more bones come together. Pivot joints: provide rotational movement (neck). Hinge joints" movement in on e plane (elbow). Ball and socket joint: movement in several planes (shoulder).
Term
Skeletal muscles
Definition
Grouping of contractile cells (muscle fibers) bound together by connective tissue. Tendons link bones to skeletal muscle.
Term
Level system of muscles
Definition
Amplifies the velocity of muscle shortening. Short, relatively short movements of the muscle produce faster movements of the body.
Term
Skeletal muscle tissue organization
Definition
Cells (muscle fibers) contain many parallel arranged long protein fibers (myofibrils) along their length. Each myofibril composed of series sarcomere units (contractile, composed of interdigitated protein fibers). Muscle cells are packaged in parallel into muscle bundles. A group of muscle bundles forms a muscle.
Term
Myofibrils
Definition
Skeletal muscle is a form of straited muscle. Named for striped microscopic pattern of myofibrils. Straited pattern shows functional structure of contractile filaments in sacromeres. Sarcomeres made of interdigitating thick an thin filaments. Thick filaments made of myosin. Thin filaments contain actin, tryponin, and tropomyosin.
Term
Neuromuscular junction
Definition
Junction of motor neuron's axon and muscle fibers. Axon branches into terminals - terminals have stored vesicles containing neurotransmitter (acetylcholine).
Term
Excitation-contraction coupling
Definition
Action potentials transmitted in muscle membrane trigger a rise on cytosolic Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum. Transverse of T-tubles are invaginations of plasma membrane that conduct the action potential from the outer surface to inner regions. Triggers contraction. Ion pumps will return calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) causing muscle to relax again.
Term
Circulatory system
Definition
Primary functions to transport necessary materials (oxygen, nutrients) to all the cells of an animal's body, and to transport waste products away from the cells where they can be released into the environment.
Term
Mammalian Heart
Definition
Can generate their own periodic action potentials --> "myogenic" excitation. Nervous input can increase or decrease rate.
Term
Neurogenic hearts of arthropods
Definition
Require regular impulses from the nervous system.
Term
Sinoatrial node (SA)
Definition
Pacemaker. What sets overall heart contraction rate. Collection of cardiac muscle cells specialized to do spontaneously and rhythmically generate action potentials.
Term
Cardiac Cycle
Definition
2 phases: Diastole: atria contract and ventricles fill (systematic blood pressure lowest). Systole: ventricles contract and blood is ejected from the heart (systematic blood pressure highest). Heart values open and shut in response to pressure gradients.
Term
Blood
Definition
Fluid connective tissue in closed circulatory systems.
Term
4 prominent components of vertebrate blood
Definition
Plasma, Erythrocytes, platelets (thrombocytes), and leukocytes.
Term
Plasma
Definition
Water and solute (proteins, ions, ect...). Functions as buffer, water balance, and cell transport. Proteins, gas, minerals, nutrients are all dissolved into plasma.
Term
Erthrocytes
Definition
red blood cells. Oxygen transport using hemoglobin: can carry 4 oxygen molecules each.
Term
Platelets (thrombocytes)
Definition
Role in formation of blood clots (fibrin precipitation).
Term
Leukocytes
Definition
White blood cells. Defend body against infection and disease.
Term
Arteries
Definition
Conducts blood away from the heart. Layers of smooth muscle and elecstic connective tissue around endothelium (epithelial tissue found inside a vessel.
Term
Arterioles
Definition
Smaller in diameter, branches of arteries. Walls thinner than arteries, lack thick layer of connective tissue. Have smooth muscle encircling it. Can dilate or constrict to control blood distribution to tissues.
Term
Capillaries
Definition
Smallest and narrowest, thinnest walled vessels in the body. Arterioles branch into fine capillary networks. Most cells in the body are within a few cell diameters of a capillary.
Term
Capillaries 2
Definition
Site of gas and nutrient/waste exchange. Single-celled thick endothelium layer on basement membrane. Fenestrated capillaries have openings of fenestrating, allow for movement of considerable water and small solute through cell walls. Continuous capillaries lave smooth walls with no fenestration. Permit less water and solute movement.
Term
Venules
Definition
What capillary networks drain into it. Blood enters capillary on arteriole end under hydrostatic pressure. (from left ventricle). Hydrostatic pressure decreases along capillary bed.
Term
Veins
Definition
Thinner and less elastic than arteries. Need help returning blood to the heart. Smooth muscle contractions help propel blood. Vein is squeezed by skeletal muscle contractions.
Term
Pulmonary respiration
Definition
Gas exchange moves carbon dioxide and oxygen between the air and blood.
Term
Internal respiration
Definition
Gas exchange moves carbon dioxide and oxygen between blood and cells.
Term
Air composition
Definition
21% oxygen. Less than 2% CO2 and other gases. 78% nitrogen.
Term
Atmospheric pressure
Definition
Pressure exhorted by the atmosphere on the body surface of animals. 760mmHg at sea level. Atmospheric pressure decreases at higher elevations.
Term
Partial pressures
Definition
atmospheric pressure is the sum of the these exhorted by each gas in air. Direction of gas diffusion by this gradients.
Term
Solubility of gases in water
Definition
Gases dissolve in solution - from water, sea water, or body fluids. Most gases dissolve poorly in water. Factors influencing solubility in water (higher pressure will result in more gas in solution up to a limit for each gas).
Term
Common features of respiratory organs
Definition
Most surfaces in which gases dissolve and diffuse. Often structure to provide large surface area for gas exchange. Extensive blood supply.
Term
Terrestrial vs. Aquatic animals
Definition
Aquatic have less total oxygen available to them. Less O2 in water than air. Water is denser than air, so more energy needed for water organisms than terrestrial organisms for air filtration.
Term
Exchange surfaces
Definition
Larger the organism, the more amount of gas exchange. Body surface exchange is not enough.
Term
External gills
Definition
Wide with large surface area. Could be specialized in particular areas of the body. Limitations: unprotected and could attract predators.
Term
Internal gills
Definition
Fish gills (bony gills): confined and protected in Opercular cavity. Enclosed by operculum.
Term
Gilarches
Definition
Main support structures. Filaments branch off of gilarches for support. Lameliea branch off of filaments.
Term
Counter-current exchange
Definition
Blood in capillaries moves opposite direction as water flow. Allows for more efficient gas exchange.
Term
Anatomy of Mammalian Respiratory System
Definition
Nose and mouth - air is warmed and humidified. Mucus in the nose cleans air of dust.
Term
Pharynx
Definition
Hollow tube. 5 inches long, starting behind the nose and ends at top of trachea (windpipes) and esophagus (tube that foes to stomach).
Term
Larynx
Definition
Vocal chords. Leads to trachea.
Term
Trachea
Definition
Glottis (opening to trachea) protected by epiglottis, rings of cartilage, cilla and mucus trap particles.
Term
Lungs
Definition
Trachea branches into 2 bronchi--> bronchioles--> alveoli.
Term
Bronchioles
Definition
Surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage.
Term
Alveoli
Definition
Small pouches. Site of gas exchange. One cell thick wall. Inner surface coated with extracellular build goes to dissolve.Surfactant chemicals: reduce surface tension, prevent alveoli from collapsing.
Term
Water/Salt balance
Definition
Water is a major portion of the body's mass. Solvent for chemical reactions (dissolve enzymes). Transport vehicle.
Term
Electrolytes
Definition
Salts dissociate in solution into charged ions. Balance important. Imbalance can alter membrane potential or disrupt other cellular activities.
Term
Osmosis
Definition
Water moves between adjacent body compartments by osmosis down an osmotic gradient. Changes in salt concentration s in on e compartment will lead to change in fluid distribution between compartments. Shrinking or swelling of cells can rupture plasma membranes leading to cell death.
Term
Obligatory exchanges: Breathing
Definition
Loss of water by evaporation. Fish can lose or gain water as water passes over gills.
Term
Obligatory exchanges: cellular respiration
Definition
production of metabolic water.
Term
Obligatory exchanges: Temperature regulation
Definition
Panting, sweating causes of water (heat) loss
Term
Obligatory exchanges:Elimination of wastes
Definition
Salts, water are lost in fecal better and urine.
Term
Obligatory exchanges: Food intake
Definition
Salt and water content
Term
Osmoconformers
Definition
Many marine invertebrates and cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays) maintain body fluid osmolarity similar to the surrounding seawater. Many invertebrates are this, having a wide tolerance to freshwater.
Term
Nitrogenous wastes
Definition
Product of protein and nucleic acid degradation. Toxic at high concentration, must be eliminated from the body.
Term
Types of nitrogenous wastes
Definition
Ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+) - Most toxic of nitrogenous wastes. Energy not required for production. Urea - Less toxic but still needs to be secreted. Conversion to ammonia from urea uses ATP. Uric acid - Less toxic than ammonia. Precipitates out of blood.
Term
Protonephridia
Definition
In Platyhelminthes. Series of branching tubules along length of body. Filter fluids from body cavity, using beating of ciliated cells (flame cells). Osmoregulatory: help to rid body of wastes. nitrogenous wastes.
Term
Metanephridia
Definition
In annelids. Tubular network beginning in funnel-like structure called nephrostome. Collects coelomic fluid.
Term
Malpighian tubules
Definition
In insects. Not a filtration system, only secretion. Material in tubules move to hind gut where water and beneficial solutes are reabsorbed.
Term
Vertebrate urinary system
Definition
Organ system designed to remove and dispose of nitrogenous wastes, excess water, and blood solutes.
Term
Nephrons
Definition
Specialized tubules composed of epithelial cells that actively transport sodium and other ions for salt and water homeostasis and nitrogenous wastes elimination. Functional units of the kidneys.
Term
Make-up of nephrons
Definition
Renal corpuscle - forms area of filtration. Tubule - performs secretion and reabsorption. Empties into emptying duct.
Term
Glomerulus
Definition
Cluster of interconnected fenestrated capillaries. Supplied by afferent arteriole. Drained by efferent (exit) arteriole. Podocytes form filtration slits (physical barriers) --> water has to move through slits
Term
Flitration
Definition
As blood flows, about 20% of plasma leaves capillaries and filters into Bowman's space. Proteins and blood cells remain in plasma. Glomerular filtration: water and small solutes (good and bad). Glomerular filtration rate (GFR): rate of filtrate production by kidneys.
Term
Nephron tubule
Definition
Continuous with Bowmen's capsule. Loop of Henle--> Descending goes through medulla, ascending comes up out of medulla into cortex.
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
Increases water retention. Released when activation of stretch receptors in heart atria is reduced.
Term
Antidiuretic hormones
Definition
Increases water retention. Released by pituitary gland in conditions of low blood volume (dehyradation). Acts to increase the number of aquamarines (water channels) in the collection duct membrane. Allows water to leave the collection g duct more rapidly, urine becoming more concentrated more quickly.
Term
Asexual reproduction
Definition
Offspring produced from a single parent without fusion of gametes. Clones of one of the parents. Little genetic diversity.
Term
Budding
Definition
Portion of the parent organism develops, grows, and separates off to produce a new individuals.
Term
Parthenogenesis
Definition
Development of offspring from unfertilized eggs. Some reproduce asexually or parthenogenesis.
Term
Sexual reproduction
Definition
production of new individual by the joining of 2 haploid gametes. Produces a diploid zygote. Genetic variation.
Term
Dioecious
Definition
"two houses" - two separate sexes (one produces sperm, the other egg).
Term
Monoecious
Definition
"one house" - hermaphroditism. male and female organs are available. Synchronous hermaphrodite: male and female at the same time. Sequential hermaphrodite: sex reversal.
Term
Protogynous
Definition
female first (clownfish species)
Term
Protandrous
Definition
make first (angel fish species)
Term
External Fertilization
Definition
Egg and sperm are released in close proximity, Usually in aquatic environment. Large amounts of egg and sperm at once.
Term
Internal Fertilization
Definition
Sperm is deposited in the female's reproductive tract during copulation. Protect gametes for environment hazards or predators.
Term
Viviparity
Definition
embryonic development within mother--> nourishment from mother (umbilical chord/placenta)
Term
Oviparity
Definition
Embryo develops outside mother in a cell (ex. egg). Protective shell. Reduces mother's metabolic investment but increase chance of predation.
Term
Ovovivparity
Definition
Egg covered in a thin shell retained inside mother but receive no/little nourishment from mother. "live birth".
Term
Community
Definition
assemblage of many populations of different species that live in the sample at the same time. Can occur on a wide variety of scales and can be nested/overlapping.
Term
Community ecology
Definition
often studies how groups of species interact and form a functional community.
Term
Organismic Model
Definition
By Clements. Competition gives rise to sharp boundaries between distinct communities. Because of long co-evolutionary history, species tend to grow together into communities with defined species compositions.
Term
Individualistic Model
Definition
By Gleason. Community is an assumption of species coexisting because of their similarities and tolerance. Not dependent on one another.
Term
Whittaker's Species Distribution Studies
Definition
Looked at plant species distributions along climate gradients in mountain ranges in California, and other locations. Generally supported Gleason's individualistic hypothesis.
Term
Species richness
Definition
number of species present in community. Depends on geographic range for amount of species in a certain area.
Term
Time hypothesis
Definition
Haven't had enough time to develop many species in places with recent glacier movement.
Term
Area hypothesis
Definition
Communities extending over larger areas have more species because they can support larger populations and inhabit a greater range of habitats.
Term
Productivity hypothesis
Definition
Greater photosynthetic productivity of plants results in greater overall species richness.
Term
Primary succession
Definition
Succession on a newly established site that is mainly abiotic (lava flow).
Term
Secondary succession
Definition
succession on a site that is supporting some cling things, but undergoes a disturbance (fire, flood, tornados).
Term
Climax community
Definition
The suggestion by Clements that succession has a distinct ending point.
Term
Seres/seral stages
Definition
Succession is a series of transient communities
Term
Facilitation
Definition
colonizing species changes the environment so that it becomes more suitable for the next species.
Term
5 general stages of embryonic development
Definition
Fertilization, cleavage division (animals not growing, just composed of more cells), gastrolation (causes 3 distinct layers; triploblastic), neurolation (one of earliest organs formed; segmented worms), and organ genesis (makes/organizes tissues).
Term
Acrosomal reaction
Definition
Enzymes dissolve region of the jelly-like layer allowing sperm to contract the plasma membrane of the egg.
Term
Blastomeres
Definition
half-sized daughter cells produced at each division Morula: solid ball of cells. Blastula: hollow ball of cells with fluid filled cavity. Blastocoel: fluid filled cavity within blastula.
Term
Yolk platelet
Definition
Vegetal pole: where yolk is more concentrated in the egg (larger cells(. Animal pole: where there is less yolk and more cytoplasm in egg (smaller cells).
Term
Blastocyst
Definition
Made of outer trophectoderm which gives rise to placenta, inner cell mass becomes embryo. Embeds in uterine wall by a process of implantation.
Term
Endoderm
Definition
Form epithelial lining of gut, liver, pancreas, lungs, and bladder.
Term
Mesoderm
Definition
Forms heart, limbs, muscles, kidneys, blood, and connective tissue.
Term
Ectoderm
Definition
forms epidermis and nervous system
Term
Invagination
Definition
During it, an epithelial sheet bends inward to form an inpocketing. Observed in echinoderms.
Term
Ingression
Definition
Cells leave an epithelial sheet by transforming form epithelial cells into freely migrating mesenchyme cells. Mammalian and avian cells.
Term
Involution
Definition
Tissue sheet rolls inward and goes underneath original sheet of epithelial cells. In amphibians.
Term
Autonomous specification
Definition
differential acquisition of various cyctoplasmic factors during cell division.
Term
Induction (external factors)
Definition
acquisition of properties through cell-to-cell signaling mechanisms (secreted factors cell-cell contact gap junctions).
Term
Neurulation in Chordates
Definition
Formation of neutral tube (goes whole length of embryo) from ectoderm located dorsal to notochord.
Term
Neural crest cell migration
Definition
Only in vertebrates. Cells on dorsal side of neural tube migrate to other regions of embryo to form all neurons, supporting cells of PNS. Also form melanocyctes, cells forming facial cartilage and parts of adrenal gland. ex. cats and dog fur coloration.
Term
Primordial Germ cells
Definition
Specialized group of embryonic cells that migrate to future site of gonads (determined very early). Once in gonad, cells can produce gametes through meiosis.
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