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| Definition of Biological Evolution |
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| A heritable change in one or more characteristics of a population or species across many generations |
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| Definition of Biological evolution from a genetic perspective: |
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| involves changes in allele frequencies over time |
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| Viewed on a smaller scale, relating to genetic or phenotypic changes within a population over time |
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| Viewed on a larger scale relating to formation of new species or groups of species |
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| Group of related organisms that share a distinctive form, function |
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| Definition of species relating to sexual reproduction: |
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| Among species that reproduce sexually, members of the same species are capable of interbreeding to produce viable and fertile offspring |
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British naturalist born in 1809
Developed a theory of evolution, presented in 1858 at a meeting of the Linnaean society and published the ideas in 1859 (“The Origin of Species”) |
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| Because Plato everything was already in its ideal form, Evolution would not occur in a world of perfectly adapted creatures |
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| Aristotle's beliefs concerning evolution |
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| There is an ordered “ladder of life” with each rung occupied. No room for change. |
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| Father of taxonomy and came up with classifications. |
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| Catastrophic events caused mass extinctions. Changes in species from one stratum to the next reflected immigration of organisms from other areas. |
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| Developed an early evolutionary model in 1809 |
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| Doomsday economist, Suggested that unchecked population growth would inevitably lead to famine, disease and a ceaseless struggle for existence |
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| procedures designed to modify traits in domesticated species |
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| He observed that South American flora and fauna were distinct from that found in Europe, and found unique species in the Galapagos islands. |
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| Genetics has allowed us to understand the relationship between _______ and ____________. |
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| Key features of the modern synthesis |
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Natural variation exists that is caused by random changes in the genetic material
Genetic changes may be advantageous, disadvantageous or neutral
If genetic change promotes an individual’s survival and/or ability to reproduce, natural selection may increase the prevalence of that trait in future generations |
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| Much of what we know about the history of life on Earth comes from the study of __________. |
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| 2 Broad patterns about fossils |
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Simpler forms in lower strata, more complex forms in upper strata.
Fossils show that many changes suddenly appear; gradual changes are relatively rare. Punctuated equilibrium. |
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| Emergence of Novel Features |
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| Truly novel features of organisms appear infrequently. Most changes in fossil organisms involve alterations of structures that already exist in organisms from lower strata. |
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| Study of the geographical distribution of extinct and modern species |
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| Island species resemble... |
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| those found on closest mainland, with adaptational changes. |
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| 2 different species from different proposed ancestral lineages show similar characteristics, occupy similar environments |
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| The Gian anteater's and echidna's long snouts and distinctive tongues are an example of _____________. |
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| Similarities between organisms attributed to common evolutionary ancestor. |
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| Homologous physical structures |
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| structures in different species proposed to be derived from a common ancestor |
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| anatomical structures that have highly reduced or no apparent current function (but resemble functional structures of presumed ancestors) |
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| Species that differ as adults often bear significant similarities during embryonic stages |
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| Similarities in biochemical characteristics of cells suggest (to some!) that all life arose from a single common ancestor. |
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| All living species use ______ to store information. |
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| 2 genes derived from the same ancestral gene |
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| Estimates of unidentified species |
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| Difficulty in identifying a species |
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| A single species may exist in 2 distinct populations that may be thought to be in the slow process of evolving into 2 or more distinct species |
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| Morphological species concept |
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| Species are identified by having a unique combination of physical traits |
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| advantages of Morphological species concept |
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Can be applied to all organisms, both asexual and sexually reproducing
Can be applied to extinct organisms |
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| Drawbacks to Morphological species concept |
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How many/which traits should be considered?
Traits often vary in a continuous way, so where to draw the line?
members of the same species can look very different while members of a different species (defined in other ways) can look very similar |
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| Biological species concept |
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| A species is a group of individuals whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with members of other species |
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| @ problems of the biological species concept |
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May be difficult to determine if 2 populations are truly reproductively isolated
Cannot be applied to asexual species, or extinct species |
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| Evolutionary/phylogenetic/cladistic species concept |
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| A species is derived from a single lineage that is distinct from other lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate |
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| Genetic relationship between an individual or group of individuals and its ancestors |
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| Drawback of the Evolutionary/phylogenetic/cladistic species concept |
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| lineages difficult to examine and identify; oftentimes controversial. |
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| Ecological species concept |
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| Each species occupies a unique ecological niche, a Unique set of habitat resources that a species requires, as well as its influence on the environment and other species |
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| Drawbacks of the Ecological species concept |
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| Depends on how fully the niche, needs of the organisms are known |
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| Prevent formation of zygote |
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| Block development of viable, fertile individuals |
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| Geographic barrier prevents contact |
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| Reproduce at different times of the day or year |
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| Behaviors important in mate choice |
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| Size or incompatible genitalia prevents mating |
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| Gametes fail to unite successfully |
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| fertilized egg cannot progress past early embryonic stages |
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| interspecies hybrid viable but sterile |
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| hybrids viable and fertile but subsequent generations have genetic abnormalities |
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| Occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated, and then diverge |
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| single species evolves into array of descendents that differ greatly in habitat, form or behavior |
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| Involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals (otherwise, hybridization would erase the divergence) |
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| Non-disjunction of chromosomes during meiosis, self-fertilization. |
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| Results from cross fertilization between two species |
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| By Far, ___________ make up the most diverse plant division |
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| Alternation of generations |
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| A sequence in a life cycle in which a haploid, gamete-producing phase is followed by a diploid, spore-producing phrase; the spores of the latter reinitiate the haploid phase |
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| Microscopic in flowering plants |
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| In flowering plants, large, independent, recognizable “plant” |
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| Mature flowering plants produce _________ and ____________. |
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| plants that die after producing seeds during their first year of life |
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| plants that do not reproduce the first year but may the following year |
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| plants that live for more than 2 years, often producing seed every year after maturity |
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| Four essential processes of plant growth and development |
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| Cell division, growth, cell specialization, and apoptosis |
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| Growh by expansion of cells in controlled directions, by _____________. |
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| Rapidly dividing cells at shoot tips and branches |
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| Rapidly dividing cells at root tips |
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| Three types of primary meristem |
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| Protoderm, Procambium, Ground meristem |
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| Produces vascular tissues |
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| Surround the established stem of a plant and cause it to grow laterally |
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| Plant meristems contain stem cells that remain undifferentiated bu can produce new cells capable of _______________. |
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| Differentiating into specialized tissues |
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| Growth in plants involves: |
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| Producing new cells and cell expansion |
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| Cell expansion occurs when water enters the central vacuole by osmosis |
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| Photosynthetic systems and sites of gas exchange |
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| only one blade, advantageous in shade by providing maximal light absorption |
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| Complex or compound leaves |
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| dissected into leaflets, common in hot environments for heat dissipation |
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| Trichomes offer protection from |
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| Excessive light, ultravioletradiation, extreme air temperature, or attack by herbivores |
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| Tendrils, tough sclaes that protect buds, poinsetta "petals", Cactus spines |
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Support for the plant body
Carries nutrients throughout plant (in vascular tissues)
Defense system to protect against predators and infection
Few millimeters to 100 meters length
Produce leaves, branches, and flowers
Hold leaves up
May function in storage and photosynthesis |
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| attachment for leaves and branches |
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| regions between the nodes |
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| contain meristematic tissue, areas of growth (stems, leaves, flowers). |
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| derived from primary meristem |
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| Secondary vascular tissue |
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| derived from secondary meristem |
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| produce mostly primary vascular tissues |
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| produce primary and secondary vascular tissue |
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| Woody plants begin as herbaceous seedling with only ____________________. |
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| Xylem in vascular bundles |
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| located towards the center of stem |
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| Phloemin vascular bundles |
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| Primarily responsible for the transport of organic nutrients (dissolved sugars) from leaves or roots to other areas of the plant (flow can occur in both directions, depending on time of year) |
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| vascular bundles are scattered throughout |
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| vascular tissue arranged as a cylinder |
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| Parenchyma cells inside the ring |
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| Primary vascular tissue arises from _________________ as stem or root grows. |
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