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Covenant Bio Exam 3
notecards for Dr. Nelson's final from exam 3
102
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/24/2012

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Term
Sensory Transduction
Definition
-incoming stimuli (chemical or physical stimuli from an animal's body or the external environment) are converted into neural signals
Term
Perception
Definition
-Conscious awareness of sensations
-not all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism
Term
Sensory Receptor
Definition
-recognizes stimulus and initiates signal transduction by creating graded potentials in the same or adjacent cells
Term
What are 2 examples of sensory receptors?
Definition
-Neurons
-specialized epithelial cells
Term
What is the nervous system of annelids like?
Definition
-same general plan as planarians
-more neurons in anterior, "integrative center"
-ventral nerve cords have ganglia in each segment
Term
What is the nervous system in simple mollusks like?
Definition
-similar to annelids
-two paired nerve cords with several paired ganglia
Term
What is the nervous system in advanced mollusks like?
Definition
-have cerebral ganglion that is highly developed
Term
What is the nervous system in Insects like?
Definition
-brain has several subdivisions withs separate functions
-increasingly complex brain in anterior region of the body
Term
What are the two major divisions of the Vertebrate Nervous system?
Definition
-Central Nervous System
-Peripheral Nervous System
Term
Central Nervous System contains...
Definition
-brain and spinal cord
Term
Peripheral nervous system contains...
Definition
-Neurons and axons of neurons outside the CNS
Term
Nucleus of the CNS
Definition
-cluster of cell bodies of neurons involved in a similar function in the CNS
Term
Ganglion of the PNS
Definition
-cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS that are involved in a similar function
Term
Tract of the CNS
Definition
-myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in the CNS
Term
Nerves of the PNS
Definition
-myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in the PNS
Term
What type of Nerves are connected directly to the brain?
Definition
-Cranial nerves
Term
Spinal Nerves
Definition
-run from various locations in the body to the spinal cord
Term
Intensity of Sensory Stimuli
Definition
-amount of cell membrane depolarization directly related to intensity of stimulus
Term
What does a strong stimulus cause?
Definition
-depolarization of the membrane to the threshold potential
-it produces an action potential in a sensory neuron
Term
What is the strength of a stimulus indicated by?
Definition
-the frequency of action potential generated
Term
What does the brain interpret high frequency of action potentials as?
Definition
-they are interpreted as a more intense stimulus
Term
What are the different types of receptors in the nervous system?
Definition
-Mechanoreceptors, electromagnetic receptors, chemoreceptors, and nociceptors (pain) receptors
Term
Mechanoreceptors
Definition
-transduce mechanical energy
Term
Electromagnetic Receptors
Definition
-detect radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum
Term
What are the 3 types of Electromagnetic receptors?
Definition
-Photoreceptors
-Thermoreceptors
-Infrared/Ultraviolet Receptors
Term
Photoreceptors
Definition
-respond to visible light energy
Term
Thermoreceptors
Definition
-respond to cold and heat
Term
Infrared/Ultraviolet Receptors
Definition
-respond to magnetic fields
Term
Chemoreceptors
Definition
-respond to specific chemicals
Term
Nociceptors (Pain Receptors)
Definition
-respond to extremes of heat, cold, and pressure
-respond to certain molecules such as acids
Term
How does mechanoreceptor work?
Definition
-physically touching or deforming a mechanoreceptor cell opens ion channels in the plasma membrane
Term
What are the two types of skin receptor cells?
Definition
-Meissner's Corpuscles
-Pacinian Corpuscules
Term
Meissner's Corpuscles
Definition
-skin receptor cells that sense touch and light pressure
-lie just beneath skin surface
Term
Pacinian Corpuscules
Definition
-located deep beneath skin surface
-respond to deep pressure and vibration
Term
How do Stretch Receptors work?
Definition
-stretching alters proteins in cell membrane, causing ion channels to open, and causing membrane to depolarize
Term
What are two examples where the body uses stretch receptor cells?
Definition
-stretching of the stomach wall is interpreted as fullness
-stretching in blood vessels provides blood pressure information
Term
Lateral Line System
Definition
-found in fish
-hair cells detect changes in water currents
-cilia of hair cells protrude in cupula structure within lateral line canal system, when the cupula moves cilia bend, this causes a neurotransmitter to be released
Term
What is Audition?
Definition
-the ability to detect and interpret sound waves
Term
Wavelength
Definition
-the distance from the peak of one sound wave to the next
Term
Frequency
Definition
-number of complete waves in a second
-measured in Hz
Term
What are high pitched noises the result of in terms of wavelengths?
Definition
-Short wavelengths
Term
What do long wavelengths produce in terms how they sound?
Definition
-low pitched sounds
Term
What are the 3 main compartments of the mammalian ear?
Definition
-outer ear, middle ear, inner ear
Term
What does the outer ear consist of?
Definition
-pinna and the auditory canal
Term
What separates the outer ear from the middle ear?
Definition
-the ear drum
Term
What does the middle ear consist of?
Definition
-ossicles that connect the eardrum to the oval window
Term
What are the 3 ossicles in the mammalian ear?
Definition
-malleus, incus, and stapes
Term
What does the inner ear consist of?
Definition
-cochlea and the vestibular system
Term
What does the vestibular system in the inner ear do?
Definition
-give a sense of equilibrium, balance, and propioreception
Term
What does the cochlea in the inner ear do?
Definition
-allows sounds to be "heard" and interpreted
Term
Eustachian Tube
Definition
-in the mammalian ear
-connects to pharynx, equalizes pressure between middle ear and atmospheric pressure
Term
How do sound waves move through the ear up to the cochlea?
Definition
-they enter the outer ear
-the tympanic membrane vibrates back and forth
-ossicles transfer vibration to the oval window
-this sends pressure waves through the cochlea
Term
Statocysts
Definition
-found in many aquatic invertebrates
-send positional information
-they are small round chambers lined with hair cells
-they contain statoliths
Term
What do the utricle and saccule in the inner ear detect?
Definition
-movements of the head
Term
What do the semicircular canals in the inner ear detect?
Definition
-motion in 3 dimensions
Term
What are some examples of electromagnetic sensing?
Definition
-fish detect electrical signals from other fish
-platypus bill can detect electrical currents from prey
-homing pigeons use magnetite to accurately navigate
-pit vipers sense infrared radiation from prey
Term
What is a Photon? (hint: Photoreception)
Definition
-fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle and a wave
Term
What types of organisms have a single-lens eye?
Definition
-vertebrates, some mollusks (squid and octopus), and some snails and annelids
Term
Sclera
Definition
-strong outer white sheath
Term
Cornea
Definition
-continuous with the sclera, but thin and clear
Term
Iris
Definition
-pigmented smooth muscle controlling size of pupil
Term
Rods
Definition
-sensitive to low intensity light
-do not discriminate colors
-used mostly at night
Term
Cones
Definition
-require more light for stimulation
-detect color
Term
Are there more Cones or Rods in the human retina?
Definition
-there are more rods
Term
What is the synaptic terminal in Rods?
Definition
-neurotransmitter filled vesicles fuse with membrane
-they interact with postsynaptic neurons
Term
What are visual pigments composed of?
Definition
-Opsin protean and Retinal
Term
Retinal (component of visual pigments)
Definition
-vitamin A derivative that absorbs light energy
Term
Opsin protein (component of visual pigments)
Definition
-the rod pigment is called Rhodopsin
-humans have 3 cone pigments (red, green, and blue)
Term
What is different between photoreceptors and other sensory receptor cells as far as polarization is concerned?
Definition
-photoreceptor cells have a membrane potential that is in a slightly depolarized state (positive when the cell is at rest)
Term
Olfaction
Definition
-sense of smell
Term
Gustation
Definition
-sense of taste
Term
Define Skeleton
Definition
-structure or structures that serve one o more functions related to support, protection, and locomotion
Term
What are the 3 types of skeletons?
Definition
-Hydrostatic
-Exoskeleton
-Endoskeleton
Term
Hydrostatic Skeleton
Definition
-a water-filled cavity surrounded by muscle
-water is nearly incompressible so hydrostatic pressure can be used to extend parts of the body
Term
Examples of Hydrostatic skeleton
Definition
-Cnidarians have tentacles that use this to elongate or shorten
-Echinoderms use this in tube feet movement
-Earthworms move forward by this
Term
Exoskeleton
Definition
-external skeleton surrounding and protecting the body
-vary in complexity, thickness, and durability
Term
Endoskeleton
Definition
-internal structures
-do not protect body surfaces, only internal organs and other structures
Term
What types of organisms use endoskeletons?
Definition
-Sponges (spicules)
-Echinoderms (ossicles)
-vertebrates
Term
What are the 2 parts of the vertebrate endoskeleton?
Definition
-axial
-appendicular
Term
Axial Endoskeleton (Vertebrates)
Definition
-main longitudinal axis
-skull, spinal column, and ribs
Term
Appendicular Endoskeleton (Vertebrates)
Definition
-limb bones and girdles
Term
Joint
Definition
-formed where 2 or more bones come together
Term
What are the 3 types of vertebrate joints?
Definition
-pivot joints
-hinge joints
-ball and socket joints
Term
Pivot joints
Definition
-rotational movements
Term
Hinge joints
Definition
-movement in one plane
Term
Ball-and-Socket Joint
Definition
-movement in several planes
Term
Tendons
Definition
-link bones to skeletal muscle
Term
Myofibrils (in skeletal muscles)
Definition
-long protein fibers that make up skeletal muscle
-each myofibril contains a series of sarcomere units
Term
Neuromuscular Junction
Definition
-junction of motor neuron's axon and muscle fiber
Term
Gastrovascular Cavities
Definition
-body cavity with a single opening to the outside
Term
What types of organisms have gastrovascular cavities?
Definition
-Cnidarians (Jellyfish and Hydras)
Term
What are the main components of the circulatory/cardiovascular systems?
Definition
-transport fluid (blood or hemolymph)
-blood vessels
-one or more pumps (hearts)
Term
What types of organisms have open circulatory systems?
Definition
Arthropods and some mollusks
Term
What is a major limitation of the open circulatory system?
Definition
-hemolymph cannot be selectively directed to different tissues/areas of the body
Term
What types of organisms have closed circulatory systems?
Definition
-annelids (earthworms)
-cephalopods (squids and octopus)
-all vertebrates
Term
Closed Circulatory System
Definition
-blood and interstitial fluid are physically separated, only certain components exchanged between the two
Term
What are 2 common patterns of circulation found in animals?
Definition
-single circulation
-double circulation
Term
Single Circulation
Definition
-single blood circuit
-found in annelids,fish, and cephalopods
Term
Double Circulation
Definition
-two distinct blood circuits
-found in crocodiles, birds and mammals
Term
What are the 2 distinct circuits of Double circulation?
Definition
-systemic circulation
-pulmonary circulation
Term
Systemic Circulation
Definition
-circulation to the body
Term
Pulmonary Circulation
Definition
-circulation to the lungs
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