export of material from one cell into inercellular space, followed by import of the same substance by an adjacent cell 

movement of auxin

movement of solutes through cell wall material, spaces between cells

short distance transport

moves soil water and dissolved minerals non-selectively through root epidermal and cortex tissues

contain several types of specialized cells

• specialized warer-conducting cells and are always dead and empty of cytosol
• long and narrow with slanted end walls
• lignin-containing

are aligned in pipeline-like fled known as vessels

gived greater capacity for bulk flow

warer flows faster through vessels than trachieds

Stomatal movements

movements that occur to close or open stomata

• guard cells close to conserve water
• Blue light stimulates active guard cell uptake, water flows in, cell expands and stomata opens

leaf drop

occurs normally to prevent water stress during temperature or light changes

valuable for desert plants and angiosperm trees of seasonally cold habitats

mature phloem remains alive

works under positive hudrostatic pressure

composed of supporting fibers, parenchyma cells, seive tube elements, and adjacent companion cells

transport sucrose from sugar producing cells of the leaf, to campanion cells and then to sieve-tube elements via plasmodesmota

does not require ATP

load sugar into sieve-tueb elements or companion cells fro intercellular spaces, often up a concentration gradient by active transport

ATP is used

2 multicellular life cycle stages 

diploid spore producing

and haploid gamete producing

male gametophyte with a tough outer wall, with two cells enclosed. THese two cells are the result of a microspore that have been mitotically divided into a tube cell and a generative cell. 

resistant to chemical degeneration

vase-shaped structures that produce, enclose, and nurture female gametophyte to mature male gametophytes

contains veins of vascular tissue that deliver nutrients from the parent sporophyte to the developing gametophytes

one or more carpels form pistils

spore producing structure enclosed in integument

within ovule, diploid cell produces 4 megaspores by meiosis

Fertilization (development of the mature male gametophyte)

pollen grains land in stigma, stigma allows only appropriate genotype to germinate

pollen tube grows through microphyle and deliver sperm to female gametophyte 

results in double fertilization 

pollen grain germinates by taking up water and producing a pollen tube

pollen gernative nucleus usually divides by mitosis to rpoduce 2 sperm cells

upon rehydration a pollen tube extends into spaces between cells and endosperm 

to deliver sperm to egg cells the tube must grow from the stigma, through the style, to the ovule

a pollen tube conveys 2 sperm cells to the female gametophyte 

tip growth controlled by tube cell nucleus

new cytoplasm and cell wall material added to tip of elongating cell

cellulose plugs concentration components of the cytoplasm at the tip 

tubes enter through microscopic of the ovule

develops as a nutritive tissue, usually triploid chromosome number

supplies nutritional needs for developing embryo and often seedling

• materials exchange with their surroundings
• obtain energy from organic nutrients (heterotrophs)
• synthesize complex molecules
• duplicate themselves
• detect and respond to signals in their immediate environment

1. no cell wall
2. no photosynthesis
3. rapid, coordinated movements used in pursuit of food, or avoidance of predators

1. muscle tissue
2. nerve cell
3. epithelial
4. connective

1. skeletal 
2. smooth 
3. cardiac

initiate and conduct electrical signals from one part of the body to another

electrical signals produced by nerve cells

1. stimulate new electrical signals in adjacent neurons
2. stimulate muscles to contract
3. stimulate glands to release chemicals

sheets of densely packed cells that cover the body or individual organs and line the body cavities

specialized to protect, provide selective pereability, secrete or absorb materials

rest on basal lamina or basement membrane

1. pseudostratified ciliated columnar
2. stratified squamous
3. simple squamous
4. simple columnar
5. stratified columnar
6. simple cuboidal

• provides scaffold for attatchment
• protects and cushions 
• mechanical strength
• transmit mechanical forces

fluid portion of the blood

blood cells suspended in plasma

fluid pumped but no distinction between pumped fluid and interstitial fluid 

typically no blood cells

• transport work
• mechanical work
• chemical work

• carbs
• proteins
• lipids (fats)
• nucleic acids
• vitamins

• phophate
• potassium
• sodium
• calcium
• iron
• etc

certain compunds that cannot be synthesized 

• amino acids
• fatty acids
• minerals
• vitamins

cannot be synthesized or stored by animals 

easily obtained by carnivores and omnivores

herbivores have more difficulty

• isoleucine
• leucine
• lysine
• methionine
• phenylalanine
• threonine
• tryptophan
• valine

needed for building fats, phospholipds, steroid hormones

found primarily in plants

carnivores obtain them from animal prey itmes

• Thromboxanes
• Prostaglandins

inorgainc ions

less than 1-2 mg/day in humans 

often needed as required for cofactors for proteins stucture and function

more than 10mg/day in humans

• energy metabolism
• body structure 
• membrane transport
• electrical impusles in the nervous system