·      Achieve credibility w management

·      Define audiences and segment publics

·      Formulate strategy

·      Test messages

·      Help management keep in touch

·      Prevent crises

·      Monitor competition

·      Sway public opinion

·      Generate publicity

·      Measure success 

Qualitative: 

“Soft data” 

Uses open-ended questions; unstructured 

Exploratory in nature

Usually valid, but not reliable 

Rarely projectable to large audiences 

Generally uses nonrandom samples 

Ex: focus groups; one on one; in-depth interviews; observation; participation; role-play studies; convenience polling 

Content analysis:

systematic and objective counting or categorizing of information; in PR, it is used to measure the amount of media coverage and the content of that coverage – learn about the competitor’s marketing strategies, strengths, and weaknesses 

Focus groups

help identify attitudes and motivations of important publics; formulate or pretest message themes and communication strategies before launching a full campaign- 8 to 12 people who represent the characteristics of the target audience and use nondirective interviewing techniques 

Quantitative

“Hard data”

Uses closed-ended questions

Descriptive or explanatory type of research 

Usually valid and reliable 

Usually projectable to large audiences 

Generally uses random samples 

Ex: telephone polls; mailed surveys; mall intercept studies; face to face interview; shared cost studies; panel studies 

Primary research 

(data collected by the professional): uses new and original info that is generated through research project and directed to answer a specific question

Secondary research 

(data collected previously by others): uses existing books, magazine articles, Internet, etc. 

Random sampling

everyone in the target audience has an equal or known chance of being selected for the survey 

Objectives

Stated in terms of program outcomes; not be the “means” but the “end” 

1.Does this really address the situation?

2.Is it realistic or achievable? 

3.Can success be measured in meaningful terms?

expose audiences to info through key message points and to increase awareness of an issue  

how and why a campaign will achieve its objectives; provides guidelines and key message themes for the overall program and a rationale for the actions and program components that are planned 

Tactics

- Plans used for attaining a particular goal

- “Nuts & bolts" of plan

- Specific activities that put the strategy into operation & help achieve the stated objectives

Audience

PR programs should be directed toward specific and defined audiences or publics 

Importance of two-way communication

Ideal public relations model should be two-way symmetrical, understanding is the principle objective, social media is two-way symmetrical communication minus nonverbal cues. It is most effective when two people are having a face-to-face conversation and when in small group.

Writing for clarity (diversity)

Use symbols, acronyms, and slogans. Avoid jargon, clichés, hype words, euphemisms, and discriminatory language.

Controlled and uncontrolled media

Controlled media promotes and provides detailed information. Examples include: brochures, newsletters, sponsored magazines, annual reports, books, direct mail, exhibits and displays, point-of purchase support, DVD’s, statement inserts, Uncontrolled media is Press Releases and News stories that an organization does not put out on their own

Passive vs. active audience

A passive audience is an audience that pays attention to a message only because it is entertaining and offers a diversion. Use communication channels such as billboards or radio spots that they can briefly notice when passing something else. 

An active audience is one that is already interested in the information and are in search for more sophisticated and supplemental information. 

Five-step adoption process

1.Knowledge- Characteristics of the decision making unit=  

a.Socioeconomic characteristics

b.Personality variables

c.Communication behavior

2.Persuasion

a.Relative Advantage

b.Compatibility

c.Complexity

d.Trial ability

e.Observability

3.Decision

a.Adoption → continued adoption and later adoption

b.Rejection → Discontinuance and continued rejection

4.Implementation

5.Confirmation

Chapter 9 (Public opinion and persuasion)

Opinion leaders: primary catalyst in public discussion; people who are knowledgeable and articulate about specific issues 

1.highly interested in the issue 

2.better informed on an issue than the average person

3.avid consumers of mass media

4.early adopters of new ideas 

5.good organizers who can get other people to take action

Agenda setting

media content sets the agenda for public discussion; media tells the public what to think about, not necessarily what to think- called the limited-effects model of mass media 

Media not only sets an agenda, but also conveys a set of attributes about the subject of the news 

Diffusion of Innovation

written by Evertt Rogers; individuals are often influenced by media in the first two steps, but friends and family members are in the third and fourth steps; each individual is the decision maker who will adopt a new idea or product and reach the final step

Dependency

when people have no prior info or attitude disposition regarding a subject, the mass media plays a role in telling people what to think; effects are also increased when people cannot verify info through personal experience or knowledge but are highly dependent on the media for that verification

Framing

originally how journalists selected certain facts, themes, treatment, and even words to “frame” a story

Two types: media framing and audience framing

Continuous process that the behavioral, attitudinal, cognitive, and affective states of individuals are involved in how they interpret issues 

Findings from persuasion research

turn hostile opinions into favorable ones 

1.Positive appeals are generally more effective than negative appeals for retention of the message and actual compliance 

2.Radio and television messages are more persuasive than print, but if the message is complex then its better through print 

3.Strong emotional appeals and fear arousal are most effective with the audience has minimal concern about or interest in the topic

4.High fear appeals are effective only when a readily available action can be taken to eliminate the threat 

5.Logical appeals are better for high educated audiences than strong emotional appeals 

6.Altruistic needs, like self-interest, can be a strong motivator

7.A celebrity is most effective when the audience has low involvement, the theme is simple, and broadcast channels are used 

Propaganda devices

“Plain folks” - This method of propaganda attempts to persuade the general public that the propagandist works for the benefit of the common people and shares their same views. He or she wants to be viewed as an Average Joe in order to gain support

“Testimonials” - Testimonials are quotations or endorsements, in or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or respectable person with a product or item – celebrities mainly

“Bandwagon” - The subject is to be convinced by the propaganda that since everyone else is doing it, they will be left out if they do not.

“Card stacking” - It involves only presenting information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it.

”Transfer” - A technique used to carry over the authority and approval of something we respect and revere to something the propagandist would have us accept. Propagandists often employ symbols (e.g., waving the flag) to stir our emotions and win our approval.

“Glittering generalities” - employ vague, sweeping statements (often slogans or simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information or reason. They appeal to such notions as honor, glory, love of country, desire for peace, freedom, and family values

Strategic conflict management

Strategic- for the purpose of achieving particular objectives

Management- planned, deliberate action

Competition- striving for the same object, position, or prize as others

Conflict- Sharp disagreements or opposition resulting in a direct, overt threat of attack from another entity

Contingency factors

The conflict management life cycle

Shows the 1Cbig picture 1D of how to manage conflict

1.Proactive

a.Environmental scanning

b.Issues tracking

c.Issues management

d.Crisis planning

2.Strategic

a.Risk communication

b.Conflict Positioning

c.Crisis Management

3.Reactive

a.Crisis communication

b.Litigation PR

c.Conflict Resolution

4.Recovery

a.Reputation management

b.Image Restoration

Risk management